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Human Rights-Based Reform of Criminal Law in Africa

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Book cover Governance, Human Rights, and Political Transformation in Africa

Abstract

The laws of most African states found their way to the African continent through the wave of colonialism. African states have since attained independence and have committed to upholding human rights. The question though is—does the criminal law framework of African states measure up to African states’ commitment to human rights? This chapter demonstrates that most African states lag behind in so far as alignment of their criminal laws with human rights standards is concerned. It is concluded that the constitutional and international human rights obligations of African states bring persuasive momentum to bear on these states to make reforms to their criminal laws with a view to bringing them up to speed with the current human rights standards.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Obaid A. EI-Obaid and Kwadwo Appiagyei-Atua, “Human Rights in Africa—A New Perspective on Linking the Past to the Present,” McGill Law Journal 41 (1996): 819–854; Rollin F. Tusalem, “The Colonial Foundations of State Fragility and Failure,” Polity 48 (2016): 445–495.

  2. 2.

    Henry Francis Morris, Some Perspectives of East African Legal History, §§1–28 (1970); Manfred O. Hinz, Traditional Governance and African Customary Law: Comparative Observations from a Namibian Perspective (2009). https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/cad2/49ee6eb777ff90be5c0fa21d58862d6ed116.pdf.

  3. 3.

    Leslie Sebba, “The Creation and Evolution of Criminal Law in Colonial and Post-colonial Societies,” Crime, History & Societies 3 (1993): 71–91.

  4. 4.

    Ibid.

  5. 5.

    Gerry Holt, “When Suicide Was Illegal,” http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-14374296. See also Suicide Act 1961, Chapter 60/9 and 60/10 of England and Wales, based on which the crime of attempting suicide ceased to be a crime in England and Wales.

  6. 6.

    See e.g. United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, November 20, 1989, http://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx; International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, December 16, 1996, http://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b3aa0.html; International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, December 16, 1966, http://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b36c0.html; United Nations Convention Against Torture, March 13, 1985, http://www.refworld.org/docid/3b00f040c.html; and African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, June 27, 1981, http://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b3630.html; etc. The status of ratification of these treaties suggests that African states have committed to adhering to international standards on human rights.

  7. 7.

    Lourens Schlebusch, Suicidal Behaviour in South Africa, §179 (2005).

  8. 8.

    Edwin Shneidman, Definition of Suicide, §203 (1985).

  9. 9.

    World Health Organisation, Preventing Suicide: A Global Imperative, §2–5 (2014).

  10. 10.

    Edith Hamilton and Huntington Cairns, eds., The Collected Dialogues of Plato, §45 (1961).

  11. 11.

    Ibid.

  12. 12.

    Aristotle, “Nicomachean Ethics,” in The Basic Works of Aristotle, §977, ed. Richard McKeon (1941).

  13. 13.

    See e.g. B.S. Yadwad and H.S. Gouda, “Is Attempted Suicide an Offence?” JIAFM 27 (2005): 108–111; Antoon A. Leenaars, “Suicide and Human Rights: A Suicidologist’s Perspective,” Health and Human Rights 6 (2003): 128.

  14. 14.

    Leenaars, “Suicide and Human Rights,” 137–138.

  15. 15.

    See e.g. Mensah Adinkrah, “Suicide and Mortuary Beliefs and Practices of the Akan of Ghana,” Journal of Death and Dying 74 (2015): 138–163.

  16. 16.

    See Holt, when suicide was illegal, and the Suicide Act 1961, Chapter 60/9 and 60/10 of England and Wales which only abolished this crime in 1961.

  17. 17.

    See generally the criminal codes of these states. A perusal through these codes reveals a number of similarities in terms of the offences proscribed. This is based on the fact that these laws have similar backgrounds.

  18. 18.

    See Kenya’s Penal Code Act, Chapter 63, §225.

  19. 19.

    See Uganda’s Penal Code Act, Chapter 120, §209. Despite being adopted in 1950, before Uganda attained independence, it remains operational to this day with very minimal amendments.

  20. 20.

    See Tanzania’s Penal Code Act, Chapter 16, §217.

  21. 21.

    See Nigeria’s Criminal Code Act, Chapter 77, §327.

  22. 22.

    See Malawi’s Penal Code Act, Chapter 7, §22.

  23. 23.

    Charles Wendo, “Suicide Cases on the Rise-Survey” (2007), http://psychrights.org/countries/uganda/thenewvisionsuicidecasesontherise070831.pdf.

  24. 24.

    Ibid.

  25. 25.

    A. Osei, “Jailing of Suicide Man—Time to Review Our Criminal Code” (2011).

  26. 26.

    Ibid.

  27. 27.

    Health Kenya, “Attempted Suicide and Kenyan Law” (2013), http://healthkenya.wordpress.com/2013/10/10/attempted-suicide-and-kenyanlaw/.

  28. 28.

    Ibid.

  29. 29.

    Nyasa Times, “Police Arrest Student for Attempting Suicide” (2012), https://www.nyasatimes.com/police-arrest-student-for-attempting-suicide/.

  30. 30.

    Ibid.

  31. 31.

    Mariam S. Schotte and George Clum, “Problem-Solving Skills in Suicidal Psychiatric Patients,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 55 (1987): 49–54; Hilda N. Shilubane, Robert A. Ruiter, Arjan E. Bos, Bert H. Van den Borne, Shamagonam James, and Priscilla S. Reddy, “Psychosocial Determinants of Suicide Attempts Among Black South African Adolescents: A Qualitative Analysis,” Journal of Youth Studies 15 (2012): 177–189; Edwin Shneidman, Suicide as Psychache: A Clinical Approach to Self-Destructive Behaviour (1993); E.C. Harris and B. Barraclough, “Suicide as an Outcome for Mental Disorders: A Meta-analysis,” British Journal of Psychiatry 70 (1997): 205–228; Mark J. Williams, Suicide and Attempted Suicide: Understanding the Cry of Pain (2001); Mark J. Williams, The Cry of Pain: Understanding Suicide and Self-Harm (1997); M.D. Clarke, “Autonomy, Rationality and the Wish to Die,” Journal of Medical Ethics 25 (1999): 457–462; Jouko K. Lönnqvist, “Psychiatric Aspects of Suicidal Behaviour: Depression,” in The International Handbook of Suicide and Attempted Suicide, §107–120, ed. Keith Hawton and Kees van Heeringen (2000); Rory C. O’Connor, “Suicidal Behaviour as a Cry of Pain: Test of a Psychological Model,” Archives of Suicide Research 7 (2003): 279–308; J.M. Bertolote, A. Fleischmann, D. De Leo, and D. Wasserman, “Psychiatric Diagnoses and Suicide: Revisiting the Evidence,” Crisis 25 (2004): 147–155; Thomas Joiner, Why People Die by Suicide (2005); L. Khasakhala, K.R. Sorsdahl, V.S. Harder, D.R. Williams, D.J. Stein, and D.M. Ndetei, “Lifetime Mental Disorders and Suicidal Behaviour in South Africa,” African Journal of Psychiatry 14 (2011): 134–139; Eugene Kinyanda, Heidi Hjelmeland, and Seggane Musisi, “Psychological Factors in Deliberate Self-Harm as Seen in an Urban African Population in Uganda: A Case-Control Study,” Suicide Life Threat Behaviour 55 (2005): 468–477; Jessica D. Ribeiro and Thomas Joiner, “The Interpersonal-Psychological Theory of Suicidal Behaviour: Current Status and Future Directions,” Journal of Clinical Psychology 65 (2009): 1291–1299; and L.J. Oliffe, J.S. Ogrodniczuk, J.L. Bottorff, J.L. Johnson, and K. Hoyak, “‘You Feel Like You Can’t Live Anymore’: Suicide from the Perspectives of Canadian Men Who Experience Depression,” Social Science & Medicine 74 (2012): 505–514.

  32. 32.

    Hanna Pickard, “Choice, Deliberation, Violence: Mental Capacity and Criminal Responsibility in Personality Disorder,” International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 40 (2015): 15–25.

  33. 33.

    See e.g. Yadwad and Gouda, “Is Attempted Suicide an Offence?” 108–111; Leenaars, “Suicide and Human Rights,” 128–148; Sree Latha and N. Geetha, “Criminalizing Suicide Attempts: Can It Be a Deterrent?” Medicine, Science and the Law 4 (2004): 343–347.

  34. 34.

    Pickard, “Choice,” 15–25.

  35. 35.

    See United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, January 24, 2007, http://www.refworld.org/docid/45f973632.html. On status of ratification, visit, https://www.un.org/development/desa/disabilities/convention-on-the-rights-of-persons-with-disabilities.html. Currently, there are 177 parties to this treaty, the majority of them being African states.

  36. 36.

    See §5 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities on the right to equality and non-discrimination.

  37. 37.

    See e.g. Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, General Comment No. 6 (2018) on equality and non-discrimination, April 26, 2018, http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=CRPD/C/GC/6&Lang=en.

  38. 38.

    Ibid.

  39. 39.

    Ibid.

  40. 40.

    See e.g. Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, General Comment No. 1 (2014) on Article 12: Equal recognition before the law, May 19, 2014, https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G14/031/20/PDF/G1403120.pdf?OpenElement.

  41. 41.

    On the implication of criminalisation of attempting suicide for human rights, see Leenaars, “Suicide and Human Rights,” 137–138; Pat Carlen, “Crime, Inequality, and Sentencing,” in A Reader on Punishment, ed. Anthony Duff and David Garland (1994), 306–332; Heidi Hjelmeland, Eugene Kinyanda, and Birthe L. Knizek, “Mental Health Workers’ Views on the Criminalisation of Suicidal Behaviour in Uganda,” Medicine, Science and the Law 52 (2012): 148–151; Emma C. Lubaale, The Crime of Attempted Suicide in Uganda: The Need for Reforms to the Law, forthcoming in 2018 in Journal of Law Society and Development. Lubaale argues that criminalizing attempting to commit suicide is problematic not only on account of its disregard of fundamental human rights, but also, its incompatibility with the principles of criminal law on the notion of “attempts.”

  42. 42.

    Yadwad and Gouda, “Is Attempted Suicide an Offence,” 110; Mensah Adinkrah, “Anti-suicide Laws in Nine African Countries: Criminalization, Prosecution and Penalization,” African Journal of Criminology and Justice Studies 9 (2016): 287–288; and Hjelmeland, “Mental Health Workers,” 148–151.

  43. 43.

    Daniel Englander, “Protecting the Human Rights of LGBT People in Uganda in the Wake of Uganda’s Anti-homosexuality Bill, 2009,” Emory International Law Review 25 (2011): 1268–1269; Naveen K. Gautam, Decriminalisation of Attempt to Commit Suicide (2014), https://www.lawctopus.com/academike/decriminalization-attempt-commit-suicide/. In this regard the author, Gautam, as the case is for African commentators attributes India’s archaic criminal Code to British colonialism, contending that “[India’s] penal laws are nothing but the handiwork of Britishers.” Gautam, however, criticizes the practice in India in light of the fact that “Britishers have themselves amended their penal laws and decriminalised attempt to commit suicide.”

  44. 44.

    Sebba, “The Creation and Evolution,” 85.

  45. 45.

    Britain struck the offence of attempting suicide as far back as 1961 as evident in Suicide Act 1961, Chapter 60/9 and 60/10 of England and Wales, yet, in 2018, former British colonies are yet to table discussions on the decriminalization of archaic criminal laws.

  46. 46.

    The Indian Penal Code 1860, §309, as struck down, stated: “Whoever attempts to commit suicide and does any act towards the commission of such offence, shall be punished with simple imprisonment for a term which may extend to one year or with fine or both.”

  47. 47.

    As far back as 1967, Zambia abrogated the offence of attempting suicide as evident in The Suicide Act, Chapter 89 of the Laws of Zambia 1967, §3. Under §3 of this Act, “[t]he rule of law whereby it is an offence against the common law for a person to kill himself is hereby abrogated.”

  48. 48.

    Human Rights Awareness and Promotion Forum, Protecting “Morals” by Dehumanizing Suspected LGBTI Persons? A Critique of the Enforcement of the Laws Criminalizing Same Sex Conduct in Uganda, §57–72 (2013) (hereinafter HRAPF). See argument with regard to the status of these laws in Uganda. Although the laws are not enforced, they are relied to discriminate against LGBTI people on account of their orientation. This category of individual suffer a number of violations including the violation of their right to privacy, freedom from cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment, freedom from torture, human dignity, to mention but a few.

  49. 49.

    See the Penal Code Act of Uganda, Chapter 120, §145.

  50. 50.

    Ibid.

  51. 51.

    HRAPF, Protecting “Morals”, 29.

  52. 52.

    Victor Juliet Mukasa and Yvonne Oyo v. The Attorney General of Uganda, Misc. Cause No. 247 (2006).

  53. 53.

    Kasha Jacqueline, David Kato and Onziema Patience v. Rollingstone Publications Limited and Giles Muhame, Miscellaneous Application No. 163 (2010).

  54. 54.

    Adrian Jjuuko, “The Incremental Approach: Uganda’s Struggle for the Decriminalisation of Homosexuality,” in Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity in the Commonwealth, ed. Institute of Common Wealth Studies (2013), 381–408.

  55. 55.

    See the Malawian Penal Code, Chapter 7, §156.

  56. 56.

    Ibid. See also §157 with regard to indecent practices between females. Under this provision, “Any female person who, whether in public or private, commits any act of gross indecency with another female person, or procures another female person to commit any act of gross indecency with her, or attempts to procure the commission of any such act by any female person with herself or with another female person, whether in public or private, shall be guilty of an offence and shall be liable to imprisonment for five years.”

  57. 57.

    See the Malawian Penal Code Act, Chapter 7, §153.

  58. 58.

    Ibid.

  59. 59.

    Ibid.

  60. 60.

    BBC News, “Malawi Gay Couple Get Maximum Sentence of 14 Years” (2010), http://www.bbc.com/news/10130240. For a commentary on this case, see Louise Price, “The Treatment of Homosexuality in the Malawian Justice System: R v Steven Monjeza Soko and Tiwonge Chimbalanga Kachepa,” African Human Rights Law Journal (2017): 524–533.

  61. 61.

    The Guardian, “Malawi Gay Wedding Couple Denied Bail for ‘Own Protection’” (2010), https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jan/04/malawi-gay-wedding-couple-bail.

  62. 62.

    Eldson Chagara, “Malawi Court Dismisses Gay Couple’s Appeal Case” (2010), https://uk.reuters.com/article/ozatp-malawi-court-idAFJOE61M03O20100223.

  63. 63.

    BBC News, “Malawi Gay Couple.”

  64. 64.

    Ibid.

  65. 65.

    On this see Corinne Lennox, “The LGBT Situation in Malawi: An Activist Perspective” (2013), 365, http://sas-space.sas.ac.uk/4824/9/13Mwakasungula_LGBTMalawiActivist.pdf.

  66. 66.

    David Smith, “Malawi to Review Homosexuality Ban After US Aid Threat” (2011), https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/dec/09/malawi-homosexuality-ban-review.

  67. 67.

    BBC-News, “Malawi Gay Couple Released After Presidential Pardon” (2010), http://www.bbc.com/news/10194057.

  68. 68.

    §2 of the ICCPR provides that “[e]ach State Party to the present Covenant undertakes to respect and to ensure to all individuals within its territory and subject to its jurisdiction the rights recognized in the present Covenant, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.”

  69. 69.

    See, for example, the 1994 case of Toonen v. Australia, Communication No. 488/1992, U.N. Doc. CCPR/C/50/D/488/1992 (1994).

  70. 70.

    Ibid. At §8.7 of its decision, the Committee ruled that references to “sex” under article 2 of the ICCPR includes “sexual orientation.” For this reason, the Human Rights Committee ruled that the ICCPR envisages sexual orientation as a ground based on which an individual cannot be discriminated against. Although the Human Rights Committee focused on the notion of “sex,” an argument could be advanced to the effect that the phrase “other status” as used in article 2 of the ICCPR, encompasses sexual orientation.

  71. 71.

    For example, the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights has interpreted §2(2) of the International Convention on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in General Comment No. 20, to recognize sexual orientation against which an individual should not be discriminated against. The Committee makes reference to the phrase “other status” under §2(2) of the ICESCR to buttress this position. On this see UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR), General Comment No. 20: Non-dis-crimination in economic, social and cultural rights (§2(2), of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights), July 2, 2009, E/C.12/GC/20, http://www.refworld.org/docid/4a60961f2.html.

  72. 72.

    United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child, General Comment No. 4 (2003): Adolescent Health and Development in the Context of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, July 1, 2003, CRC/GC/2003/4, http://www.refworld.org/docid/4538834f0.html. The United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child has observed that article 2 of the Convention of the Rights of the Child encompasses sexual orientation.

  73. 73.

    United Nations Committee Against Torture (CAT), General Comment No. 2: Implementation of §2 by States Parties, January 24, 2008, CAT/C/GC/2, http://www.refworld.org/docid/47ac78ce2.html. The United Nations Committee Against Torture has also weighed in, noting that in fulfilling the provisions of the CAT, all persons must be taken into account, regardless of their sexual orientation or transgender identity.

  74. 74.

    See decision in National Coalition for Gay and Lesbian Equality v. Minister of Justice 1998 (12) BCLR 1 (CC).

  75. 75.

    See section 9(3) of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1996, which encompasses sexual orientation as a prohibited ground for discrimination.

  76. 76.

    A perusal through the status of ratification of the various international treaties suggests that most African states have committed to these treaties by virtue of their ratification.

  77. 77.

    Nick Duffy, “Theresa May Tells Commonwealth Leaders: We Deeply Regret Colonial-Era Anti-gay Laws” (2018), https://www.pinknews.co.uk/2018/04/17/theresa-may-commonwealth-anti-gay-laws/.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa

    Emma Charlene Lubaale

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  1. Emma Charlene Lubaale
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  1. Research Institute of Environmental Law, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China

    Michael Addaney

  2. Centre for Human Rights, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

    Michael Gyan Nyarko

  3. African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Banjul, The Gambia

    Elsabé Boshoff

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Lubaale, E.C. (2020). Human Rights-Based Reform of Criminal Law in Africa. In: Addaney, M., Nyarko, M.G., Boshoff, E. (eds) Governance, Human Rights, and Political Transformation in Africa. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-27049-0_7

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