Abstract
Even though almost all countries in Africa formally recognize the right to freedom of assembly in their constitutions, governments have used repressive public order laws to frustrate the exercise of the right. In such hostile environments, courts can play an important role in protecting the right. The Ghanaian case of New Patriotic Party (NPP) v Inspector General of Police (NPP Case) provides a good illustration of how constitutional guarantee of the right to freedom of assembly can be frustrated by public order laws and how courts can step in to protect the right. The chapter highlights that, while liberal interpretations by courts can play an important role in safeguarding the right, this alone is not sufficient to protect the right peaceful assembly from illiberal policing tactics. It examines how the police in Ghana circumvented constitutional and legislative protection of the right through the use of the courts to stifle assemblies usually through ex parte injunctions from lower courts to curtail the exercise of peaceful assemblies, leading to recent legal action to prevent arbitrary police interference with the enjoyment of the right. It concludes that civil society and other relevant actors need to constantly be on the lookout for illiberal police maneuvering to ensure that judicial and legislative gains are not circumvented.
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- 1.
Inspector-General of Police v All Nigeria Peoples Party and Others (2007) AHRLR 179 (NgCA 2007), para. 12.
- 2.
John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971), 53.
- 3.
Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Rights to Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and of Association, Maina Kiai, May 21, 2012, UN Doc. A/HRC/20/27 (hereafter Maina Kiai, 2012), para. 12.
- 4.
John D. Inazu, “The Forgotten Freedom of Assembly,” Tulane Law Review 84 (2010): 565 at 566.
- 5.
Inazu (as above).
- 6.
Stuart Woolman, “Assembly, Demonstration and Petition,” in The Bill of Rights Handbook, ed. Ian Currie and Johan De Waal (Cape Town: Juta, 2013), 377.
- 7.
Notably, the Arab Spring pro-democracy protests led to the toppling of authoritarian governments in Tunisia, Egypt and Libya; see Lisa Anderson, “Demystifying the Arab Spring: Parsing the Differences Between Tunisia, Egypt and Libya,” Foreign Affairs, May/June (2011), accessed September 4, 2018, https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/libya/2011-04-03/demystifying-arab-spring?fa_anthology=1116900.
- 8.
Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR), Guidelines on the Freedom of Peaceful Assembly (2010), 24.
- 9.
OSCE Guidelines (as above).
- 10.
Éva Molnár v Hungary, Application no. 10346/05, European Court of Human Rights (2008), para. 42.
- 11.
International Centre for Non-profit Law (ICNL), “Freedom of Assembly,” Global Trends in NGO Law 2 (2011): 1.
- 12.
Sam Jones and Stephen Burgen, “Catalonia Responds to Police Violence: ‘People Are Angry, Very Angry,’” The Guardian, October 3, 2017, accessed March 4, 2018, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/oct/03/catalonia-tensions-rise-as-strikes-held-over-police-violence-during-referendum.
- 13.
Article 19, “Freedom of Association and Assembly” (2001), 3, accessed March 3, 2018, https://www.article19.org/data/files/pdfs/publications/sub-saharan-africa-freedom-of-association-and-assembly.pdf.
- 14.
Article 19 (as above).
- 15.
(2001) AHRLR 138 (GhSC 1993); [1993–1994] 2 GLR 459; [2000] 2 HRLRA 1.
- 16.
William A. Schabas, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: The Travaux Préparatoires, volume 1, October 1946 to November 1947 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013), xxxvii.
- 17.
Henry J. Steiner, Philip Alston, and Ryan Goodman, International Human Rights in Context: Law, Politics, Morals—Texts and Materials (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), 142; John P. Humphrey, “International Bill of Rights: Scope and Implementation,” William and Mary Law Review 17, no. 3 (1976): 527 at 528–540.
- 18.
Proclamation of Teheran, Final Act of the International Conference on Human Rights, UN Doc. A/CONF. 32/41 at 3 (1968), para. 2.
- 19.
Hurst Hannum, “The Status of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in National and International Law,” Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law 25 (1995): 287.
- 20.
Klaus Decker, Siobhán McInerney-Lankford, and Caroline Sage, “Human Rights and Equitable Development: ‘Ideals’, Issues and Implications,” Background Paper for the World Development Report (2006), 10, accessed September 4, 2018, http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDRS/Resources/477365-1327693659766/8397901-1327773323392/Human_Rights_and_Equitable_Development_Ideals_Issues_and_Implications.pdf.
- 21.
Louis Henkin, “The International Bill of Rights: The Universal Declaration and the Covenants,” in International Enforcement of Human Rights, ed. Rudolf Bernhardt and John A. Jolowizc (Berlin: Springer, 1987), 1 (1987), 1–6.
- 22.
Article 5(d)(ix).
- 23.
Article 15.
- 24.
Article 11.
- 25.
Ibid.
- 26.
Article 8.
- 27.
Article 28.
- 28.
Article 15.
- 29.
Articles 5 and 12.
- 30.
OSCE Guidelines (n. 8 above), 16.
- 31.
Osmani and Others v FYR of Macedonia, Application no. 50841/99, European Court of Human Rights (2001).
- 32.
Ezelin v. France, Application no. 11800/85, European Court of Human Rights (1991); (1992) 14 EHRR 362.
- 33.
Christians Against Racism and Fascism v United Kingdom, Application no. 8440/78, European Commission of Human Rights (1980).
- 34.
Ziliberberg v Moldova, Application no. 61821/00, European Court of Human Rights (2004); Maina Kiai, 2012 (n. 3 above), para. 25; African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, “Guidelines on Freedom of Association and Assembly in Africa” (2017), para. 70(b).
- 35.
Ouranio Toxo and Others v Greece, Application no. 74989/01, European Court of Human Rights (2005), para. 43.
- 36.
Human Rights Council resolutions 19/35 (preambular, para. 11) and 22/10 (preambular, para. 16).
- 37.
These organizations are the authors of the OSCE Guidelines (n. 8 above).
- 38.
Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, “Effective Measures and Best Practices to Ensure the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights in the Context of Peaceful Protest,” UN Doc. A/HRC/22/28, January 21, 2013, para. 21.
- 39.
Report of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (as above), para. 11; African Commission (n. 34 above), para. 71.
- 40.
OSCE Guidelines (n. 8 above), 15.
- 41.
OSCE Guidelines (n. 8 above), 18; Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Rights to Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and of Association, Maina Kiai, April 24, 2013, UN Doc. A/HRC/23/39 (hereafter Maina Kiai, 2013), para. 52; African Commission (n. 38 above), para. 75; Kivenmaa v. Finland, Communication No. 412/1990, UN Human Rights Committee, UN Doc. CCPR/C/50/D/412/1990 (1994).
- 42.
African Commission (n. 34 above), para. 72.
- 43.
As above.
- 44.
As above, para. 73.
- 45.
Maina Kiai, 2012 (n. 3 above), para. 29; African Commission (n. 34 above), para. 75.
- 46.
Bukta and Others v. Hungary, Application No. 25691/04, European Court of Human Rights (2007); Maina Kiai, 2012 (n. 3 above), 29; African Commission (n. 34 above), para. 71(b).
- 47.
OSCE Guidelines (n. 8 above), 36.
- 48.
OSCE Guidelines (n. 8 above), 36; Maina Kiai, 2012 (n. 3 above), paras. 33–38; African Commission (n. 34 above), paras. 94–98.
- 49.
African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, “General Comment No. 3 on the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights: The Right to Life (article 4)” (2015), para. 28.
- 50.
As above.
- 51.
OSCE Guidelines (n. 8 above), 16.
- 52.
African Commission (n. 34 above), paras. 77 at 78.
- 53.
As above, paras. 78 and 79.
- 54.
As above, para. 80.
- 55.
ICNL (n. 11 above), 2.
- 56.
Kivenmaa v Finland, Communication No. 412/1990, UN Human Rights Committee, UN Doc. CCPR/C/50/D/412/1990 (1994), para. 9.2.
- 57.
Media Rights Agenda & Others v Nigeria (2000) AHRLR 200 (ACHPR 1998), para. 71; Prince v South Africa, Communication 255/2002, para. 44 reprinted in Christof Heyns and Magnus Killander, Compendium of Key Human Rights Documents of the African Union (2013), 239.
- 58.
Gillan and Quinton v. the United Kingdom, Application no. 4158/05, European Court of Human Rights (2010), para. 77.
- 59.
Article 19 v Eritrea (2007) AHLR 73 (ACHPR 2007), para. 92; Civil Liberties Organisation (in respect of the Bar Association) v Nigeria (2000) AHRLR 186 (ACHPR 1995), para. 16; Open Door and Dublin Well Woman v Ireland, Application no. 14234/88, European Court of Human Rights (1992), paras. 69 and 70.
- 60.
Article 21 of ICCPR; Samut Karabulut v Turkey, Application no. 16999/04, European Court of Human Rights (2009), paras. 37–38; Belyazeka v Belarus, Communication no. 1772/2008, Human Rights Committee (2012), para. 11.7.
- 61.
Primov and Others v Russia, Application no. 17391/06, European Court of Human Rights (2014), para. 150; Lashmankin and Others v Russia, Applications nos. 57818/09 and 14 others, European Court of Human Rights (2017), paras. 421–424; Chumak v Ukraine, Application no. 44529/09, European Court of Human Rights (2018), para. 50.
- 62.
African Commission (n. 34 above), para. 85.
- 63.
Rassemblement Jurassien Unite Jurassienne v. Switzerland, Application no. 8191/78, European Commission of Human Rights (1979).
- 64.
Denis Turchenyak and others v Belarus, Comm. No. 1948/2010, Human Rights Committee, UN Doc. CCPR/C/108/D/1948/2010, September 2013, 10, para. 7.4.
- 65.
Chumak v Ukraine (2018), para. 53.
- 66.
As above; see also African Commission (n. 34 above), paras. 87–88.
- 67.
Media Rights v Nigeria, paras. 69–70; Prince v South Africa, para. 43; see also African Commission (n. 34 above), paras. 85–88.
- 68.
Human Rights Committee, General Comment No. 31: The Nature of the General Legal Obligation Imposed on States Parties to the Covenant (2004), CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.13, para. 6; Ezelin v France (1991), paras. 48–53; Chorherr v. Austria, Judgment, Application no. 13308/87 European Commission of Human Rights (1993), para. 33; Interights & Others v Mauritania (2004) AHRLR 87 (ACHPR 2004), paras. 82–85.
- 69.
African Commission (n. 34 above), para. 87.
- 70.
African Commission (n. 34 above), paras. 99–103.
- 71.
Section 8 of National Redemption Council Decree (NRCD) 68 required that the holding of all public processions and meetings and the public celebration of any traditional custom should be subject to obtaining the prior police permit; section 12 empowered a superior police officer to stop or disperse such a procession or meeting conducted without permit; and section 13 made it an offense to hold such processions, meetings and public celebrations without such police permission.
- 72.
Article 21(4)(c) provides as follows: ‘21(4) Nothing in, or done under the authority of, a law shall be held to be inconsistent with, or in contravention of, this article to the extent that the law in question makes provision – (c) for the imposition of restrictions that are reasonably required in the interest of defense, public safety, public health or the running of essential services, on the movement or residence within Ghana of any person or persons generally, or any class of persons; or…’.
- 73.
NPP Case 471.
- 74.
NPP Case 469.
- 75.
NPP Case 478.
- 76.
NPP Case 481.
- 77.
NPP Case 508.
- 78.
NPP Case 484.
- 79.
NPP Case 476.
- 80.
Benjamin Kumbor, “Epistolary Jurisdiction of the Indian Courts and Fundamental Human Rights in Ghana’s 1992 Constitution: Some Jurisprudential Lessons,” Law, Social Justice & Global Development 9 (2001): 2.
- 81.
Public Order Act, section 1(1).
- 82.
Public Order Act, section 1(4).
- 83.
Public Order Act, section 1(5).
- 84.
Public Order Act, section 1(6).
- 85.
Public Order Act, section 1(7)
- 86.
Public Order Act, section 2.
- 87.
OSCE Guidelines (n. 8 above), 18; Maina Kiai, 2013 (n. 41 above), para. 52; African Commission (n. 34 above), para. 75; see also Jacob Zenn, “Freedom of Assembly: Procedures of Permission and Notification” (2013), 3, http://www.icnl.org/research/resources/assembly/Permission-Notification%20article.pdf.
- 88.
Sections 1 and 3 of Regulation of Gatherings Act.
- 89.
Sections 5(1) and 5(2) of the Public Order Act; see also Woolman (n. 6 above); Zenn (n. 87 above), 7.
- 90.
Section 3(2) of Regulation of Gatherings Act; see also Woolman (n. 6 above); South African Human Rights Commission, “Human Rights in Community Protests,” https://www.sahrc.org.za/home/21/files/SAHRC%20Community%20Protest%20Pamphlet%20revised%2020%20March%202018.pdf; Simon Delaney, “The Right to Freedom of Assembly, Demonstration, Picket and Petition Within the Parameters of South African Law,” in Socio-economic Rights—Progressive Realisation? ed. Foundation for Human Rights (2016), 595.
- 91.
Inspector-General of Police v. All Nigeria Peoples Party and others (2007) AHRLR 179 (NgCA 2007), para. 23.
- 92.
Francis D. Boateng and Isaac N. Darko, “Our Past: The Effect of Colonialism on Policing in Ghana,” International Journal of Police Science & Management 18 (2016): 13; See also Nana A. Anyidoho, “Review of Rights Discourse—Ghana” (2009), which highlights how the police has treated protesters over the years.
- 93.
As above.
- 94.
“Occupy Ghana Condemns Abuse of Ex Parte Injunction by Police,” Myjoyonline, accessed September 5, 2018, https://www.myjoyonline.com/news/2015/September-29th/occupyghana-condemns-abuse-of-ex-parte-injunction-by-police.php; “Let My Vote Count Alliance Wins Historic Case Against Police, Attorney-General,” Ghanapoliticsonline, accessed September 5, 2018, http://ghanapoliticsonline.com/let-my-vote-count-alliance-wins-historic-case-against-police-attorney-general/; and “NPP Hits Streets Over Dumsor,” Ghana Today, accessed September 5, 2018, http://www.ghanatoday.com/news/politics/item/2813.
- 95.
Edward K. Quashigah, “The Constitutional Right to Freedom of Assembly and Procession in Ghana in the Light of the Decision in the Public Order Case and the Public Order Act,” University of Ghana Law Journal 20 (1996–1999): 1.
- 96.
As above.
- 97.
As above.
- 98.
See Order 19 Rule 2 and Order 80 Rule 4 of High Court (Civil Procedure) Rules 2004.
- 99.
Republic v Circuit Court Accra, ex parte Gifty Oware-Aboagye (Inspector General of Police & Attorney General Intervening as Interested Parties), Suit No: HRCM 4/2016, Human Rights Court, Accra.
- 100.
See article 141 of the 1992 Constitution of Ghana; see also section 16 of the Courts Act 1993 (Act 459) and Order 55 Rules 1 and 2 of the High Court (Civil Procedure) Rules 2004 (CI 47).
- 101.
Ex parte Gifty Oware-Aboagye, 8.
- 102.
As above.
- 103.
As above, 12.
- 104.
As above.
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Gillan and Quinton v. the United Kingdom, Application no. 4158/05, European Court of Human Rights (2010).
Interights & Others v Mauritania (2004) AHRLR 87 (ACHPR 2004).
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Media Rights Agenda & Others v Nigeria (2000) AHRLR 200 (ACHPR 1998).
Open Door and Dublin Well Woman v Ireland, Application no. 14234/88, European Court of Human Rights (1992).
Osmani and Others v FYR of Macedonia, Application no. 50841/99, European Court of Human Rights (2001).
Ouranio Toxo and Others v Greece, Application no. 74989/01, European Court of Human Rights (2005).
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Domestic cases
Inspector-General of Police v All Nigeria Peoples Party and Others (2007) AHRLR 179 (NgCA 2007).
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Nyarko, M.G. (2020). The Role of the Judiciary in Safeguarding the Right to Assembly and Public Protest in Ghana. In: Addaney, M., Nyarko, M.G., Boshoff, E. (eds) Governance, Human Rights, and Political Transformation in Africa. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-27049-0_10
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