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Adaptations of Adaptation: On How an Educational Concept Travels from the Heartlands to the Hinterlands

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The Transnational in the History of Education

Part of the book series: Global Histories of Education ((GHE))

Abstract

Rockwell reports on the diverse understandings of adapting metropolitan education to local cultures, a prospect that played a central role in the transnational construction of nineteenth-century education, particularly in colonial and post-colonial contexts. Debates peaked at the International Conference on Education in the Colonies held in Paris, during the Exposition Coloniale Internationale of 1931. Rockwell analyzes the case of French colonial schooling, strongly influenced by European ethnological conceptions of the cultural evolution of “other races.” Contradictory interpretations and implementations of adapted education are evident in the reports from Morocco and the AOF, where France set up separate school systems for the indigènes, yet strongly promoted French language instruction and the mainland pedagogy, which, ironically, had also adopted the principle of “adaptation” in 1924.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    See Eckhardt Fuchs, “History of Education: Beyond the Nation?” in Connecting Histories of Education Transnational and Cross-Cultural Exchanges in (Post)Colonial Education, ed. Barnita Bagchi, Eckhardt Fuchs, and Kate Rousmaniere (New York: Berghahn, 2014), 11–26.

  2. 2.

    See chapters in Bagchi, Fuchs, and Rousmaniere, eds., Connecting Histories of Education: Transnational and Cross-Cultural Exchanges in (Post)Colonial Education (New York: Berghahn, 2014); Ariadna Acevedo and Susana Quintanilla, “La perspectiva global en la historia de la educación,” Revista Mexicana de Investigación Educativa 14, no. 40 (2009): 7–11.

  3. 3.

    On colonial regimes in Morocco and French West Africa, see Alice L. Conklin, A Mission to Civilize: The Republican Idea of Empire in France and West Africa, 1895–1930 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997); Gary Wilder, The French Imperial Nation-State: Negritude and Colonial Humanism between the Two World Wars (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005).

  4. 4.

    H. M. Dubois, “Assimilation ou adaptation,” Africa: Journal de l’Institut International des Langues et Civilisations Africaines 2, no. 1 (1929): 1–21.

  5. 5.

    Eric S. Yellin, “The (White) Search for (Black) Order: The Phelps-Stokes Fund’s First Twenty Years, 1911–1931,” The Historian 65, no. 2 (2002): 319–352; Gita Steiner-Khamsi and Hubert O. Quist, “The Politics of Educational Borrowing: Reopening the Case of Achimita in British Ghana,” Comparative Education Review 44, no. 3 (2000): 272–299; Kenneth J. King, “Africa and the Southern States of the U.S.A.: Notes on J. H. Oldham and American Negro Education for Africans,” The Journal of African History 10, no. 4 (1969): 659–677; Edward H. Berman, “American Influence on African Education: The Role of the Phelps-Stokes Fund’s Education Commissions,” Comparative Education Review 15, no. 2 (1971): 132–145.

  6. 6.

    I translate this term as “Republican schools” in the rest of the chapter to refer specifically to the 1881–1882 Jules Ferry reform.

  7. 7.

    Elsie Rockwell, “Tracing Assimilation and Adaptation through School Exercise Books from ‘Afrique Occidentale Française’ (Early Twentieth Century),” in Empire and Education in Africa: The Shaping of a Comparative Perspective, ed. Peter Kallaway and Rebecca Swartz (New York: Peter Lang, 2016), 235–270.

  8. 8.

    Catherine Hodier and Michel Pierre, L’exposition coloniale: 1931 (Paris: Editions Complexe, 1991).

  9. 9.

    On George Hardy see: Spencer D. Segalla, The Moroccan Soul: French Education, Colonial Ethnology, and Muslim Resistance, 1912–1956 (Lincoln: Nebraska University Press, 2009); Carine Eizlini, “Le Bulletin de l’Enseignement de l’AOF, une fenêtre sur le personnel d’enseignement public expatrié en Afrique Occidentale Française (1913–1930)” (PhD diss., Paris University V, Descartes-Cerlis, 2013). On the use of anthropology to justify adaptation, see: Peter Kallaway, “Science and Policy: Anthropology and Education in British Colonial Africa during the Inter-War Years,” Paedagogica Historica 48, no. 3 (2012): 411–430; Benoit de L’Estoile, “Rationalizing Colonial Domination? Anthropology and Native Policy in French-Ruled Africa,” in Empires, Nations and Natives: Anthropology and State-Making, ed. Benoit de L’Estoile, Federico Neiburg, and Lugia Siguad (Durham: Duke University Press, 2005), 30–58.

  10. 10.

    Paul Crouzet in: Congrès intercolonial de l’enseignement dans les colonies et les pays d’Outre-Mer (Paris, 1931), ed., L’adaptation de l’enseignement dans les colonies: Rapports et compte-rendu du Congrès Intercolonial de l’enseignement dans les colonies et les pays d’Outre-Mer (Paris: Didier, 1932), 308.

  11. 11.

    Gallieni had played an important military role in the expansion of French control of parts of Africa. The first schools in the AOF, established by General Faidherbe, were dubbed “écoles d’hôtages,” (hostage schools), and recruited the offspring of local chieftains in an outright attempt to secure their compliance with French rule.

  12. 12.

    Pascale Barthélémy, “L’enseignement dans l’Empire colonial français: Une vieille histoire?” Histoire de l’éducation 128 (2010): 5–28, accessed April 6, 2017, http://histoire-education.revues.org/pdfindex2252.html. A similar fear pervaded Southern Whites in the USA after the Nathanial Turner rebellion, leading to the suppression of any schooling for slaves or free Blacks.

  13. 13.

    J. P. Little, Introduction to Une conquête morale: L’enseignement en Afrique Occidentale Française, by Georges Hardy, viii–xviii (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2005). Citation on page ix; this and all further citations from French sources are translated by the author. See also Georges Hardy, L’enseignement aux indigènes dans les possessions françaises d’Afrique (Bruxelles: Établissements Généraux d’Imprimerie, 1931).

  14. 14.

    Cited by J. P. Little, Introduction, xvi.

  15. 15.

    Bulletin Comité d’Études Historiques et Scientifiques De l’Afrique Occidentale Française (AOF), and the Bulletin de l’Enseignement de l’AOF, and the Bulletin de l’Enseignement Public, both published in Morocco.

  16. 16.

    “[…] comprendre, en un mot, et dans le sens le plus général du terme, l’âme indigène.” Ernest Roume, preface to Bulletin Comité D’études Historiques et Scientifiques de l’Afrique Occidentale Française, ed. Gouvernement Général de l’Afrique Occidentale Française, 3, no. 2 (1930): 275. Translation by author.

  17. 17.

    Hardy, Une conquête morale, 203–204.

  18. 18.

    Little, Introduction, xv.

  19. 19.

    “She is great, our history; it is, in comparison with others, pure, generous and noble. Our colonial history, in particular, is a marvelous story that outshines the loveliest pages of ancient history.” Translation by author. Little, Introduction, xi, citing: Hardy, Une conquête morale, 185–186.

  20. 20.

    M. L. Brunot, “Rapport sur Maroc,” in L’Adaptation de l’enseignement dans les colonies: Rapports et compte-rendu du Congrès intercolonial de l’enseignement dans les colonies et les pays d’Outre-Mer, 25–27 Septembre 1931, ed. Congrès intercolonial de l’enseignement dans les colonies et les pays d’Outre-Mer (Paris, 1931) (Paris: H. Didier, 1932), 34–44.

  21. 21.

    Ibid., 34–36.

  22. 22.

    Ibid., 36–38. This has often been a claim—proven to be false—against the use of native languages in education.

  23. 23.

    Ibid., 42–44, for all of the following citations.

  24. 24.

    Richard L. Roberts, Two Worlds of Cotton Colonialism and the Regional Economy in the French Soudan, 1800–1946 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996).

  25. 25.

    “Arrêté modifiant le programme des écoles primaires élémentaires, 23 février 1923, and Instructions sur les nouveaux programmes des écoles primaires, 20 juin 1923, signed by the Minister Léon Bérard,” in Textes officiels, Tome 2, ed. A. Chervel (1880–1939) (Paris: Institut National de Recherche Pédagogique, 1995), 309–332.

  26. 26.

    « Textes portant sur la réorganisation de l’enseignement en Afrique Occidentale française ». Bulletin de l’Enseignement de l’Afrique Occidentale Française, no spécial 57. 1924, 203p. Cited in Eizlini, Carine. 2013. Le Bulletin de l’Enseignement de l’AOF, une fenêtre sur le personnel d’enseignement public expatrié en Afrique Occidentale Française (1913–1930). Thèse de doctorat, Université Paris V, Descartes-Cerlis.

  27. 27.

    André Davesne, “Rapport sur APF,” in L’Adaptation de l’enseignement dans les colonies: Rapports et compte-rendu du Congrès intercolonial de l’enseignement dans les colonies et les pays d’Outre-Mer, 25–27 Septembre 1931, ed. Congrès intercolonial de l’enseignement dans les colonies et les pays d’Outre-Mer (Paris, 1931) (Paris: H. Didier, 1932), 85–94. Translation by author.

  28. 28.

    Ibid., 86–87.

  29. 29.

    Ibid., 90–91.

  30. 30.

    Ibid., 89–91.

  31. 31.

    Ibid., 91.

  32. 32.

    For example, Albert Remondet, “Deux formes primitives d’éducation au Soudan Français,” Bulletin Comité d’Études Historiques et Scientifiques de l’Afrique Occidentale Française 14 (1932): 1–26.

  33. 33.

    André Davesne, Mamadou et Bineta lisent et écrivent couramment: Livre de français à l’usage des écoles africaines. Cours préparatoire 2ème année et cours élémentaire (Strasbourg: Istra, 1931). [orig. 1929, with multiple reprintings].

  34. 34.

    Davesne, “Rapport,” 106. He mentions the success of Spain in disseminating Spanish throughout America. See also Eizlini, “Le Bulletin de l’Enseignement de l’AOF,” 284–293. Davesne in another text favored rigorous training in French composition reiterating a position that associated mastery of written French with the ability to think logically and precisely, thus countering the African tendancy of “grandiloquence.”

  35. 35.

    Marc Depaepe, “Writing Histories of Congolese Colonial and Post-colonial Education: A Historiographical View from Belgium,” in Connecting Histories of Education: Transnational and Crosscultural Exchanges in (Post)Colonial Education, ed. Barnita Bagchi, Eckhardt Fuchs, and Kate Rousmaniere (New York: Berghahn, 2014), 228–243.

  36. 36.

    Davesne, “Rapport,” 92–94, for this and subsequent citations of the paragraph.

  37. 37.

    Ibid., 94.

  38. 38.

    Ibid., 95.

  39. 39.

    Ibid.

  40. 40.

    Ibid., 96.

  41. 41.

    J. J. Brévié, “L’école populaire en Afrique Occidentale Française (Circulaire de M. le Gouverneur général, no. 30 E, du 20 janvier 1932, J. O. du 30 janvier, pages 105 et 106),” Bulletin de l’Enseignement de l’Afrique Occidentale Française 21, no. 78 (1932): 3–7, accessed April 6, 2017, https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k57141209?rk=42918;4.

  42. 42.

    Pour que l’indigène aille à l’école, il faut que l’indigène aille à l’école. J. J. Brévié, “Extrait du discours de M. Le Gouverneur Brévié: Prononcé à l’ouverture de la session du Conseil du Gouvernement,” Bulletin de l’Enseignement de l’Afrique Occidentale Française 19, no. 73 (1930): 3–7, accessed April 6, 2017, https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5714108v.

  43. 43.

    Brévié, “L’École populaire,” 6.

  44. 44.

    See Rockwell, “Tracing Assimilation”; Fodéba Keita, Le maître d’école (Paris, Seghers, 1952).

  45. 45.

    “Instructions sur les nouveaux programmes des écoles primaires,” 20 juin 1923, 314–315.

  46. 46.

    Many taught with republican zeal, and many sought ways to translate French civilization into meaningful lessons. See Eizlini, “Le Bulletin de l’Enseignement de l’AOF”; Jean-Hervé Jézéquel, “Histoire de bancs, parcours d’élèves,” Cahiers d’études africaines 169–170 (2003): 409–433, accessed April 6, 2017, http://etudesafricaines.revues.org/207; Jean-Hervé Jézéquel, “Les enseignants comme élite politique en AOF (1930–1945): Des ‘meneurs de galopins’ dans l’arène politique,” Cahiers d’études africaine 178 (2005): 519–543, accessed April 6, 2017, http://etudesafricaines.revues.org/5458; Benoit Falaize, “Le préalable colonial: L’enseignement de l’histoire à l’école élémentaire dans les colonies (1900–1962),” Chapter 3 in L’évolution de l’enseignement de l’histoire à l’école élémentaire de la Libération à nos jours (1945–2014) (PhD diss., Université de Cergy Pontoise, 2014).

  47. 47.

    Lyautey vindicated his success in Morocco as a “monarchist within a monarchy,” a religious man who respected a fervently religious people, a believer in social hierarchies, and a proponent of separate school systems for separate classes, where people “do not mix.” He apparently commented: “None of this would have been possible in France,” cited in Segalla, The Moroccan Soul, 11–15.

  48. 48.

    Cécile B. Vigouroux, “Francophonie,” Annual Review of Anthropology 42 (2013): 379–397.

  49. 49.

    Rockwell, “Tracing Assimilation.”

  50. 50.

    Roberts, Two Worlds.

  51. 51.

    Rockwell, “Tracing Assimilation.”

  52. 52.

    Jézéquel, “Les enseignements”; Jézéquel, “Histoire de bancs.”

  53. 53.

    Rockwell, “Tracing Assimilation.”

  54. 54.

    Tim Allender, “Transcending the Centre-Periphery Paradigm: Loreto Teaching in India, 1842–2010,” in Connecting Histories of Education Transnational and Cross-Cultural Exchanges in (Post)Colonial Education, ed. Barnita Bagchi, Eckhardt Fuchs, and Kate Rousmaniere (New York: Berghahn, 2014), 228–243.

  55. 55.

    Eckhardt Fuchs, “The Creation of New International Networks in Education: The League of Nations and Educational Organizations in the 1920s,” Paedagogica Historica 43, no. 2 (2007): 199–209, accessed April 7, 2017, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00309230701248305.

  56. 56.

    Fuchs, “History of Education,” 15.

  57. 57.

    Ibid., 11, 13.

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    Elsie Rockwell

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    Eckhardt Fuchs

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    Eugenia Roldán Vera

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Rockwell, E. (2019). Adaptations of Adaptation: On How an Educational Concept Travels from the Heartlands to the Hinterlands. In: Fuchs, E., Roldán Vera, E. (eds) The Transnational in the History of Education. Global Histories of Education. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17168-1_6

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