Abstract
This chapter examines recent South African fiction in the light of former President Thabo Mbeki’s call for an “African Renaissance.” Mbeki’s African Renaissance is often described by critics as the cultural face of a “homegrown” form of neoliberalism. And yet, the African Renaissance was driven less by the familial ideologies of Euro-American neoliberalism—entrepreneurialism, individual freedom, and so on—than by new understandings of how the future relates to economic activity. As I show, the industries that dominated post-apartheid South Africa were first and foremost concerned with packaging the future into forms that could be commodified, monetized, and turned into profits. These industries fed on the speculative frenzy that we normally associate with Euro-American neoliberalism, but funnelled these speculations towards a messianic future that was framed as the negation of an abject present day.
In order to develop a fuller understanding of this messianic temporality, I juxtapose Zakes Mda’s novel Heart of Redness with the growth of intellectual property (IP)-based ethno-enterprises in South Africa. By examining how Mda’s novel transforms Xhosa culture into a type of IP, I show how such future-oriented enterprises are not separate from cultural production, but instead adopt many of the same techniques common to contemporary fiction: the use of writing to instantiate otherwise “intangible” ideas; the marking out of culture as a realm of value anterior to the empirical world; and the tracing of nonlinear temporalities. The IP-fiction dynamic is thus a two-way process, with fiction serving as an essential component of neoliberal future-making, but also as a vehicle that can perhaps shape these neoliberal industries into new, and more utopian, forms.
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Notes
- 1.
See also African National Congress 1994.
- 2.
For more on these laws, see James 2015, 60–91.
- 3.
For a detailed account of capital flows in post-apartheid South Africa, see Bond 2003.
- 4.
The most extensive account of South Africa’s cash transfer programmes can be found in Ferguson 2015. As Ferguson points out, cash transfers programmes have proliferated across many African countries and are especially common in southern Africa.
- 5.
Ferguson 2006, 15–19 surveys these studies.
- 6.
Mbeki makes this connection clear after his first use of the phrase, when he mentions the “disempowerment of the masses of our people” as that which “we must make foreign” (Mbeki 1999, xiv).
- 7.
“Parallel importing” describes the system whereby generic versions of products are imported from countries where IP protections are not in place. It is a relatively common practice when dealing with potentially life-saving drugs.
- 8.
These efforts have not been overly successful in breaking up the Western monopoly on IP rights. As Joseph Slaughter notes, by 1999 “97 percent of the world’s intellectual property [was] held by the industrialized countries in the North,” and “80 percent of the patents registered in the Global South [were] held by alien residents of industrialized countries” (Slaughter 2011, 182). For more on recent efforts by indigenous peoples to reappropriate IP rights, see Geismar 2013.
- 9.
See, for example, the essays collected in the section “Moral Renewal and African Values” in Makgoba 1999, 137–169.
- 10.
I adapt this term from Catherine Gallagher’s influential account of fiction (see Gallagher 2006).
- 11.
Baucom is quoting from Catherine Gallagher’s classic account of the rise of the novel, Nobody’s Story (Gallagher 1994, xvi).
- 12.
- 13.
For a broader discussion of these concerns, see Ramutsindelda and Shabangu 2013.
- 14.
This also leads us to another point of intersection between Heart of Redness and international IP rights. In 2008, the historian Andrew Offenburger accused Mda of plagiarizing Jeff Peires’s historical account of the cattle-killing movement, The Dead Will Arise (1989) (Offenburger 2008). Subsequent defenses of Mda have stressed how his novel can be seen as an “intertextual” appropriation similar in form to the borrowings common to Xhosa oral traditions (see, e.g., Highman 2016). At the center of this debate, I would argue, is a fundamental difference in how IP is defined—as the property of a single individual, or as a type of collective property open to all members of a society.
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Eatough, M. (2019). Futures, Inc.: Fiction and Intellectual Property in the (South) African Renaissance. In: Deckard, S., Shapiro, S. (eds) World Literature, Neoliberalism, and the Culture of Discontent. New Comparisons in World Literature. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05441-0_10
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