18.1 Meaning and Understanding of Sports Volunteering

Slovakia is a small country in the heart of Europe, bordered by five other European countries: Austria, the Czech Republic, Poland, Ukraine, and Hungary. Its complex history and diverse ruling governments have affected the country at every front, including the third sector. Slovakia’s voluntary organizations are financially dependent on third parties and claim financial support from the present government through grants offered by the ministries, as there is no financial support system targeting volunteering organizations and centers specifically. Such a challenging situation affects the volunteer rates in the sports sector, which are mostly affected by the data collection practices. Slovakia will host the 2019 International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) World Championship in May 2019. This will be the second time a large-scale event will take place in the country, with the hope of collecting more data to better understand the volunteering trends. This chapter aims to explain and elaborate on (sports) volunteering practices in Slovakia within the constraints of the limited research available in the sports sector.

Before describing the history of volunteering and defining the term “volunteering” as well as elaborating on different perceptions of volunteering, it is important to mention that the term “sports volunteering” is barely used in the Slovak language. This is likely due to the low number of volunteers, regardless of which sector is referred to. In addition, “Slovakia does not currently have a health monitoring and surveillance system that includes population-based measurements of physical activity among adults. Neither does the country have national recommendations on physical activity” (European Union 2015, p.2). If these systems and recommendations were in place, maybe there would be a larger attraction for sports volunteering in Slovakia, as people would be willing to volunteer for causes that can improve one’s health.

18.1.1 History of Volunteering

Slovakia’s history plays an important role in all economic sectors, which is why the history of volunteering needs to be described to fully understand the meaning of volunteering. The term “sports volunteering” has not found its way into Slovakia’s dictionary, as much as comparative sports research would wish it. This is because the term “volunteering” has only had an official definition for 17 years. However, voluntary organizations are a known phenomenon in Slovakia, as they have their origins in the Middle Ages when aid and philanthropy were booming. Voluntary organizations saw a significant increase from 1918 to the late 1930s as they were seen “as an important pillar of support for pre-war Czechoslovakia” (European Union n.d.-a). However, between 1939 and 1945, the third sector declined due to Slovakia becoming a client state of Nazi Germany. Furthermore, the post-1948 communist rule had a great impact on the society because “voluntary” became “mandatory” and so shed a negative light on volunteering. In fact, the unwillingness to participate in common projects was seen as resistance to the communist regime, and that was unacceptable.

Thankfully, this changed in 1989 after the collapse of communist regime in the then Czechoslovakia, and this allowed for a huge growth in the third sector (European Union n.d.-a). By the time Czechoslovakia split in 1993 into Slovakia and the Czech Republic, Slovakia recorded 6,000 nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), which then doubled in the next three years, and by 2002 over 26,000 NGOs were registered (Nikodemová 2009). The year 2011 brought a crucial change for the volunteering infrastructure as the Platform of Volunteer Centers and Organizations was established in August. Following this platform formation, the Law of Volunteering was passed on December 1, 2011. However, it was evident that this law would unfortunately not give monetary support to these organizations and centers (European Union n.d.-a). The year 2011 was a successful year, as the World Ice Hockey Championships came to Bratislava and Košice attracting many volunteers.

18.1.2 Definition of (Sports) Volunteering

Volunteering has been defined and identified among Slovaks for a few centuries, and the research agrees with the following definition of a volunteer: “A volunteer is a person who from his/her own free decision without a requirement to be paid, performs a voluntary activity based on his/her knowledge, abilities, and skills for another person with her/his agreement or for the public good” (Country Report Slovakia 2012, p.1). This definition has been in place since the Law on Volunteering was passed on December 1, 2011. Slovakia has not developed a definition of volunteering since 1993 when it became independent from the Czech Republic and the third sector was split. Dobrovoľníctvo in literal translation means volunteering, as in doing something because of one’s free will. For almost 20 years, the society did not really know what could be identified as volunteering – people helped out in various organizations without financial compensation whenever they had time. Many saw this as an act of philanthropy, and volunteering was often interchanged with philanthropy, which led to much confusion. Králiková (2006) explained that volunteering and philanthropy should not be used interchangeably because philanthropy means being charitable and humane, trying to reduce poverty, and helping socially worse-off individuals because one feels that humans should do so. Justifiably, the lack of understanding and misinterpreting the meaning of philanthropy made many people unwilling to call themselves a “volunteer.” Also, the official definition of volunteering is fairly new; thus, it will take some time for the term to be correctly understood and used by the Slovak population. This is supported by the Country Report Slovakia’s (2012) authors, who state that there is a general lack of information about volunteering as well as recognizing its importance, and many people do not refer to themselves as being volunteers. It can take some time and clear explanations for people to realize that they are indeed volunteers. Lack of information, will, enthusiasm, capacity, and sometimes the necessary negotiating skills make volunteering in the nonprofit sector difficult. This general trend can be seen in every type of volunteering organization.

Sports volunteering as such is not used in research about Slovakia. Strečanský (2015, p.71) states that “data on volunteering in Slovakia is limited and incomplete,” and, therefore, any data needs to be interpreted with caution. Gavurova et al. (2017, p.1004) find that there is “a lack of comprehensible, in-depth qualitative and quantitative research studies about volunteering,” and so the challenge to find research resources remains. The lack of data is due to other issues being more important to research than volunteering, for example, Slovakia’s economy. Volunteering data is usually broken down in sectors, and that is where one can find some numbers referring to sports. However, the numbers are very low: only 7.4% of all volunteering is dedicated to sports (Nikodemová 2009). Section 18.2 will present volunteering data in more detail.

18.1.3 Different Perceptions of Volunteering

There are different perceptions of volunteering mainly based on individuals’ age and the degree of formalisation of the activity. Given the historical context described above, different perceptions of older people toward volunteering can be expected.

“Iuventa,” the Slovak Youth Institute, published a short book addressing a reoccurring problem in the younger generation of volunteers, namely, the disagreement of being labeled as a volunteer. A prime example is the following statement: “Ja nie som dobrovoľník! Ja to robím iba tak...” This translates to “I am not a volunteer! I just simply do it... [Referring to volunteering]” (Králiková 2006, p.3). Such a direct statement of a young man helping at one of the youth centers in Bratislava resonated in the volunteering community. The indication of young people denying their engagement in volunteering services reflects Strečanský’s (2015, p.105) conclusion that “the tendency of younger civil society groups is to organize themselves informally and ad hoc and reject the traditional institutionalism of NGOs.” It is evident that young people do not wish to be labeled as volunteers because they do not see their work as volunteering but rather as something they simply wish to do. Where to draw the line between volunteering and simply helping out “just because” is not clear and is frankly impossible. For the older citizens, volunteering is often connected to something that they had to do when they were younger. One interviewee agrees:

I think volunteering is seen as something negative because the socialist brigades implemented it in the past: everybody was obliged to attend these brigades… The middle-aged generation remembers brigades where they spent eight hours doing nothing. It seems that brigades and volunteering have become synonyms for some people. I think this is the reason why more young people volunteer in Slovakia, because the older generations were forced to work, supposedly voluntary (Mračková and Vlašicová 2007, p.10).

This statement was true five years later, when Gregorová et al.’s (2012) findings showed that 83.3% of the age group 20-29 years old frequently volunteers and only 16.6% of the age group 70 years old and above engaged in volunteering activities.

Formal volunteering is volunteering for an organization, whereas informal volunteering is assisting with tasks outside of the family or household (Strečanský 2015). Only 27.5% of Slovak population engaged in formal volunteering in 2010, and 47.1% engaged in informal volunteering (Gregorová et al. 2012). However, the inconsistency of the data appears when results of the European Social Survey (2006) indicated that 75% of the Slovak population engaged in informal volunteering (as cited in Gregorová et al. 2012). In either data findings, it is apparent that more people engage in informal volunteering than formal. This can be due to Slovakia’s population preferring the community type of volunteering rather than the managerial type of volunteering, in which the volunteering activities are extremely formal (Gregorová et al. 2012).

Noteworthy is that Slovak people support the nonprofit sector by donating money rather than being directly involved in voluntary activities (Nikodemová 2009). According to Salamon and Sokolowski (2001, p.18), Slovakia follows an unusual mixture of volunteering model, as there is “relatively high government social welfare spending and restricted avenues of non-profit development,” which is the result of the former communist regime. Additionally, the perception of volunteering has not changed between 1998 and 2003, as 55% and 74%, respectively, shared the same opinion: “Volunteers are perceived as people who have earned the society’s appreciation and are doing a good thing. On the other hand, people also believe that volunteers would not be needed had the state fulfilled its obligations in the first place” (Gregorová et al. 2009, p.47).

18.1.4 Volunteer Remuneration

In terms of volunteer remuneration, only international volunteers who are recruited from different countries receive financial support, usually from the Erasmus+ program. A recent example of volunteer remuneration is from the Ecumenical Council of Churches in Slovakia’s vacancy for 16 international volunteers. According to the Voluntary Service in Slovakia/Bratislava (Ecumenical council of Churches in Slovakia n.d.) for the volunteers from Italy, for 11 months of volunteering in Bratislava, one receives daily allowances of four or five EUR, monthly diet money (150 EUR), rent covered in a shared flat, and coverage of travel costs to a maximum of 275 EUR. If the Erasmus+ budget is higher, then more remuneration can follow. Similarly, the Erasmus + program offers financial compensation for volunteering in the form of 150 EUR/month meal allowance, 95 EUR personal allowance, and a refund up to 170 EUR for vaccinations against hepatitis A and hepatitis B (European Union n.d.-b). This type of remuneration is only available for international volunteers as they need to work in a safe environment. Local volunteers are not compensated in any way. At most, local volunteers will receive a free meal during their shift (applicable for short-term volunteering) or a merchandizing article from a nonprofit organization (applicable for long-term volunteering). Generally, this is understood as the standard volunteering situation in Slovakia, and it only changes when a large-scale event takes place. Volunteering during large-scale event will be discussed in more detail in Sect. 18.3.

To compare Slovakia with other countries in this book, Table 18.1 summarizes key country information.

Table 18.1 Slovakia’s volunteer characteristics
Full size table

18.2 Volunteer Workforce in Slovakia

This section will chronologically present available volunteer data (also from the year of Slovakia hosting a large-scale event) and will contrast continuous and episodic volunteers. Salamon and Sokolowski (2001) present a composition of volunteering in Slovakia from 1995: culture 37.8%, social services 21.8%, environment 14.2%, foundation 7.1%, professional 6.1%, civic/advocacy 5.8%, health 1.9%, n.e.c. 1.8%, education 1.4%, development 1.1%, and international 1.0%. Salamon and Sokolowski (2001) compared 24 countries, and Slovakia was at the very bottom when comparing volunteering contribution to nonprofit income. Data from this study also showed that Slovakia’s size of the nonprofit sector has an influence on volunteering: smaller than average nonprofit results in smaller amount of volunteering. In comparing whether a country has an expressive (culture, sports, recreation, environmental protection, political expression, advocacy, labor unions, and professional and business associations) or a service role of volunteering (education, health, social services, development, and housing), Slovakia showed to have a more expressive role (64%) than a service role (25%) of volunteering; the other 11% were activities that did not fall into either category.

The National Report – Slovakia ( European Union n.d.-a ) collected data between 1988 and 2007, and the results are as follows:

  • 1988: 46% of total population (2,474,500 volunteers)

  • 2003: 39% of total population (2,098,000 volunteers)

  • 2004: 13% of total population (699,000 volunteers)

  • 2007: 0.47% of total population (25,133 volunteers)

Nikodemová (2009) presented some figures from the Slovak Official Statistical Office with data from 2005:

  • More women volunteer than men: 52% female, 41% male, and 7% unspecified.

  • Younger people volunteer more: 70% below 30 years old and 30% above 30 years old.

  • Long-term volunteering is preferred: 73% long-term volunteers, 23% short-term volunteers, and 4% unspecified.

The trend between 1998 and 2007 showed a substantial decrease, which is a result of lack of commitment and investment by the national government in financing or otherwise supporting the third sector (European Union n.d.-a). On the other hand, Slovakia saw a record number of volunteers during the Days of Volunteering in September 2011 when 6,651 volunteers helped at various organizations throughout the country (Vilikovská 2011).

Data on sports volunteering showed sports volunteering to be toward the bottom of the table based on volunteer involvement by sector. The order in 2009 was as follows: education and training 39.3%; social care and service 32.3%; leisure time activities 29.6%; art and culture 18.9%; advocacy of civil rights 17.2%; environment 13.3%; charity 11.7%; health care and services 9.5%; regional development and housing 9.0%; foundations and funds 9.0%; sports 7.4%; research, analysis, and expertise 7.3%; exchange of volunteers 6.4%; recreation 5.6%; and other sectors of activity 6.9% (Nikodemová 2009). A poll conducted in 2011 found that “27.5% of Slovaks work for a specific organization as a volunteer and more than half of all people aged over 15 help informally” (Vilikovská 2011, p.1).

By 2015, the following facts have been collected about volunteering in Slovakia (Brozmanová-Gregorová 2009, 2012 in Strečanský 2015):

  • Most frequent volunteering is in sports clubs, church and religious organizations, community development, and education.

  • The highest participation is in NGOs, municipalities, and religious organizations.

  • Volunteering is connected with membership in NGOs and giving, that is, volunteers are members.

  • Education plays a role in volunteering: the higher the educational level, the higher the volunteering engagement.

  • Most frequent types of activities include organizing campaigns, events, sporting activities, and free time activities for youth, elderly, and others.

In terms of volunteer organizations, the Bratislava region has by far the highest amount of NGOs (European Union n.d.-a). Children and youth volunteer organizations are the biggest volunteer organizations in Slovakia and include ‘Slovak Scouting’, ‘DOMKA’, or ‘ERko’, with long traditions of education on volunteering. These are supported by former recipients of the services, that is, former volunteers bring up the next volunteer generation. Many of these organizations have a Christian background (e.g., ERko). The two largest volunteering organizations with a long tradition are the Slovak Red Cross and the Union of Seniors. Sports volunteering organizations (i.e., sports clubs, unions, and centers) in Slovakia also have a long tradition; however, they do not operate as the typical volunteer organizations mentioned above (Country Report Slovakia 2012). The latest research on volunteering from 2014 showed inadequate public participation in volunteering activities due to lack of recognition, free time, and finances, with financing being the most problematic issue (Gavurova et al. 2017).

Lastly, both episodic and continuous volunteers exist in Slovakia. Long-term volunteering practices are carried out by 64% of formal volunteers, but research shows that Slovak volunteers prefer episodic and short-term type of volunteering (Gregorová et al. 2012).

18.3 Volunteer Management in Sports

Sports and event volunteer data in Slovakia are limited due to the low number of large-scale events taking place and the lack of interest in the third sector research. However, the 2011 IIHF World Championship attracted a large amount of volunteers, and the data from this event were broken down in detail. According to the IIHF (2010), there were a large number of volunteer applications in 2011 (1,294 males, 717 females) not only from Slovakia but also from the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Russia, Romania, Georgia, Canada, the USA, Turkey, and Mexico. The largest interest came not only from the group of 20 to 30-year-olds but also from people living abroad who were willing to return to Slovakia for the event. The challenge of picking volunteers resulted from the false motivation of many applicants – to simply watch the championships. All applicants stated that they wanted to contribute to the success of the event, but out of the 700 anticipated volunteers, only 550 were chosen: 363 volunteers were based in Bratislava (including 10 international volunteers), and 187 were based in Košice (including two international volunteers). Approximately two-thirds were males, one-third were females, the average age was 25 years, and they were mostly students. As described in Sect. 18.1.3, the trend of the younger generation being involved in volunteering activities is higher than the older generation. It is important to note that the students from the Bratislava Economic University Faculty of Commerce helped immensely and made the event successful (IIHF 2010, 2011). This detailed breakdown of volunteers is the best-recorded volunteer data available from a sporting event to date. Slovakia is in need of such data to understand and improve sports event-specific volunteering, as individual motivation and perception of volunteering might differ from nonsports volunteers.

18.4 Volunteering, State, and Civil Society

The support of the state in Slovakia is twofold: direct grants from Slovak ministries and the European Union or indirect state support for NGOs by assigning 2% of paid taxes to a chosen nonprofit organization. Slovakia’s voluntary organizations claim financial support from the present government through grants offered by the Slovak Ministry of Education, Science, Research, and Sport and the Ministry of Labor, Social Affairs, and Family, as there is no financial support system targeting volunteering organizations and centers specifically. The application for grants from the ministries and/or European Union funds is difficult to claim because there are 23,000 active civic associations in Slovakia and the competition is high. Understandably, Slovak citizens give 2% of paid taxes to NGOs that deal with cancer research, foster care, education, and other such organizations that are considered to be more humane. Thus, (youth) volunteering is the least supported area. When comparing Slovakia with Western European countries, the key difference is that volunteer centers do not receive regular financial support from the government. What is surprising is that the organizations and centers have not advocated for better conditions earlier. It could be that Slovak volunteer centers have become skeptical of cooperating with the government based on the political situation as well as the lack of governmental strategy toward the nonprofit sector (Country Report Slovakia 2012). Brozmanová-Gregorová and Mráčková (2008) list a few challenges for volunteering and propose to improve the volunteering situation by increasing public awareness and infrastructure of volunteering, professionalizing voluntary organizations, integrating children and seniors, improving the level of volunteering research, and setting up a more robust legal framework. Slovakia will have the opportunity to improve the volunteering situation even more when the 2019 IIHF World Championship returns to Bratislava and Košice in May 2019, which will provide a platform to collect more up-to-date volunteering data. However, to host another successful mega event, the Ondrej Nepela Ice Hockey Arena in Bratislava needs to be renovated, and the question remains the same, who will cover the costs? The responsible ministry, the Ministry of Education, Science, Research, and Sport, of the Slovak Republic, states that there is no budget for 2018 or 2019 to support such renovations because it is not in line with the legal framework of sports (TSAR 2017). The management of leisure and recreation facilities will cover 600,000 EUR, but the rest will need to be discussed by the city of Bratislava and the Slovak Ice Hockey Federation as the ice hockey arena will be rented from the city (TSAR 2018).

18.5 Conclusion

This chapter has explained and elaborated on the (sports) volunteering situation in Slovakia in as much depth as possible given the lack of recent data. One has to be cautious when interpreting the presented data as it stems from different sources and was collected at different time points. The Social Policy Analysis Center Foundation, the CARDO civic association, and the Center for Civil Society Studies at the Johns Hopkins University are the three entities that have done the most research on volunteering in Slovakia, but research is still limited. Slovakia’s history and changes in political regimes throughout the decades are key factors in understanding the voluntary organizations’ development as well as their future, given the current political situation. The biggest challenge for volunteering in Slovakia is the absence of targeted and reliable financial support (Nikodemová 2009) and the “lack of legal framework for volunteering, which should be designed with the aim to support voluntary organizations, not to regulate them” (Gavurova et al. 2017, p.1004). The Law of Volunteering helped to strengthen the volunteering infrastructure, but more support is needed. Additionally, more up-to-date data needs to be collected to fully understand volunteering practices in Slovakia, and the research should also focus on sporting events. Slovakia is behind on sports volunteering data compared to other European countries (Salamon and Sokolowski 2001). In conclusion, the World Ice Hockey Championships have found their way back to Bratislava in May 2019, and, so, Slovakia has an opportunity to host yet another successful event.