Abstract
Humans evolved as an athletic species able to run in the midday heat, to throw with exquisite accuracy and to strike powerfully despite relatively weak upper arms compared to those of the great apes. The true extent to which humans could run long distances was first tested in a unique series of 6-day foot races contested between 1874 and 1888 by professional athletes from England and the United States. These athletes typically would have expended approximately 60 000 kcal (24.12 MJ) of energy during these races. The discovery of the bicycle soon caused the replacement of these races by 6-day cycling races which, in turn, led to the modern day Tour de France, the cycling race across America (RaAM) and two running races across the width of the United States in 1928 and 1929. The total energy expenditures during these different events can be estimated at approximately 168 000, 180 000 and 340 000 kcal respectively.
But, in terms of the total energy expenditure, all these performances pale somewhat when compared to that of Robert Falcon Scott’s Polar party during the 1911/12 British Antarctic Expedition. For most of 159 consecutive days, Scott’s team man-hauled for 10 hours a day to the South Pole and back covering a distance of 2 500 km. Their predicted total energy expenditure per individual would have been about 1 million kcal, making theirs, by some margin, the greatest sustained endurance athletic performance of all time. Interestingly, the dogs that provided the pulling power for Norwegian Roald Amundsen’s team that was the first to reach the South Pole, 35 days before Scott’s party, would have expended about 500 000 kcal in their 97 day trip, making theirs the greatest animal “sporting” performance on record. By contrast, mountain climbers expend only approximately4 000 kcal/day when climbing at extreme altitudes (above 4 000 m). This relatively low rate of energy expenditure results from the low exercise intensities that can be sustained at extreme altitude. Here I argue that this slow rate of energy expenditure is caused, not by either myocardial or skeletal muscle hypoxia as is usually argued, but is more likely the result of a process integrated HYPoXia and tHE CiRCulation Chapter 0 centrally in the brain, the function of which is to protect the body from harm. At extreme altitude the organ at greatest risk is the brain which must be protected from the catastrophic consequences of profound hypoxia. A key feature of this control is that it acts “in anticipation” specifically to insure that a catastrophic biological failure does not occur. The evidence for this interpretation is presented.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Amann M, Eldridge MW, Lovering AT, Stickland MK, Pegelow DF and Dempsey JA. Arterial oxygenation influences central motor output and exercise performance via effects on peripheral locomotor muscle fatigue in humans. J Physiol575:937-952, 2006.
Bender PR, Groves BM, McCullough RE, McCullough RG, Huang SY, Hamilton AJ, Wagner PD, Cymerman A and Reeves JT. Oxygen transport to exercising leg in chronic hypoxia. J Appl Physiol65:2592-2597, 1988.
Berry H. From L.A. to New York, from New York to L.A.Chorley: H. Berry, 1990.
Bigland-Ritchie B and Vollestadt N. Hypoxia and fatigue: How are they related? In: Hypoxia: the tolerable limits., edited by JR Sutton, CS Houston and G Coates. Indianapolis IL: Benchmark, 1988, p. 315-325.
Bramble DM and Lieberman DE. Endurance running and the evolution of Homo. Nature432:345-352, 2004.
Calbet JA, Boushel R, Radegran G, Sondergaard H, Wagner PD and Saltin B. Determinants of maximal oxygen uptake in severe acute hypoxia. Am.J Physiol Regul.Integr.Comp Physiol284:R291-R303, 2003.
Calbet JA, Boushel R, Radegran G, Sondergaard H, Wagner PD and Saltin B. Why is VO2 max after altitude acclimatization still reduced despite normalization of arterial O2 content? Am.J Physiol Regul.Integr.Comp Physiol284:R304-R316, 2003.
Cherry-Garrard A. The worst journey in the world. New York: Carroll and Graf, 1989.
Cymerman A, Reeves JT, Sutton JR, Rock PB, Groves BM, Malconian MK, Young PM, Wagner PD and Houston CS. Operation Everest II: maximal oxygen uptake at extreme altitude. J Appl Physiol66:2446-2453, 1989.
Diamond J. Evolutionary design of intestinal nutrient absorption enough but not too much. News in Physiological Science6:92-96, 1991.
Foster C and Foster D. Speaking with earth and sky. Cape Town: David Phillips Publishers, 2005.
Fowkes Godek S, Bartolozzi AR and Godek JJ. Sweat rate and fluid turnover in American football players compared with runners in a hot and humid environment. Br J Sports Med39:205-211, 2005.
Fulco CS, Lewis SF, Frykman PN, Boushel R, Smith S, Harman EA, Cymerman A and Pandolf KB. Muscle fatigue and exhaustion during dynamic leg exercise in normoxia and hypobaric hypoxia. J Appl Physiol81:1891-1900, 1996.
Gandevia SC. Spinal and supraspinal factors in human muscle fatigue. Physiol Rev 81:1725-1789, 2001.
Garner SH, Sutton JR, Burse RL, McComas AJ, Cymerman A and Houston CS. Operation Everest II: neuromuscular performance under conditions of extreme simulated altitude. J Appl Physiol68:1167-1172, 1990.
Godek SF, Bartolozzi AR, Burkholder R, Sugarman E and Dorshimer G. Core temperature and percentage of dehydration in professional football linemen and backs during preseason practices. J Athl.Train.41:8-14, 2006.
Gordon B and Baker JC. Observations on the apparent adaptability of the body to infections, unusual hardships, changing environment and prolonged strenuous exertion. Am.J Med.Sci.178:1-8, 1929.
Green HJ, Sutton JR, Cymerman A, Young PM and Houston CS. Operation Everest II: adaptations in human skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol66:2454-2461, 1989.
Groves BM, Reeves JT, Sutton JR, Wagner PD, Cymerman A, Malconian MK, Rock PB, Young PM and Houston CS. Operation Everest II: elevated high-altitude pulmonary resistance unresponsive to oxygen. J Appl Physiol63:521-530, 1987.
Heacox K. Shackleton: The Antarctic Challenge. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic, 1999.
Heinrich B. Racing the antelope. New York: Harper Collins Publishers Inc., 2001.
Hill AV, Long CNH and Lupton H. Muscular exercise, lactic acid and the supply and utilisation of oxygen - parts VII-VIII. Proc.Royal Soc.97:155-176, 1925.
Huntford R. The last place on earth. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1981.
Jeukendrup AE. High Performance Cycling. Champaign: Human Kinetics Publishers, 2002.
Kayser B, Narici M, Binzoni T, Grassi B and Cerretelli P. Fatigue and exhaustion in chronic hypobaric hypoxia: influence of exercising muscle mass. J Appl Physiol 76:634-640, 1994.
Knechtle B, Enggist A and Jehle T. Energy turnover at the Race Across America (RAAM) - a case report. Int.J Sports Med26:499-503, 2005.
Liebenberg L. The art of tracking: The origin of science. Claremont, South Africa: David Philip Publishers (Pty) Ltd, 1990.
Lucia A, Hoyos J, Santalla A, Earnest C and Chicharro JL. Tour de France versus Vuelta a Espana: which is harder? Med.Sci.Sports.Exec.35:872-878, 2003.
Malconian M, Rock P, Hultgren H, Donner H, Cymerman A, Groves B, Reeves J, Alexander J, Sutton J, Nitta M and . The electrocardiogram at rest and exercise during a simulated ascent of Mt. Everest (Operation Everest II). Am J Cardiol. 65:1475-1480, 1990.
Messner R. Everest: Expedition to the Ultimate. London: Kaye & Ward, 1979.
Noakes TD. Lore of Running. Human Kinetics Publishers, Champaign, IL, 2003.
Noakes TD. Challenging beliefs: ex Africa semper aliquid novi: 1996 J.B. Wolffe Memorial Lecture. Med.Sci.Sports Exerc.29:571-590, 1997.
Noakes TD. Maximal oxygen uptake: “classical” versus “contemporary” viewpoints: a rebuttal. Med.Sci.Sports Exerc.30:1381-1398, 1998.
Noakes TD. Physiological models to understand exercise fatigue and the adaptations that predict or enhance athletic performance. Scand.J.Med.Sci.Sports10:123-145, 2000.
Noakes TD. Should we allow performance-enhancing drugs in sport? A rebuttal to the article by Savulescu and colleagues. Int J Sports Sci & Coaching1:289-316, 2006.
Noakes TD. The limits of endurance exercise. Basic Res Cardiol.101: 408-417, 2006.
Noakes TD. The Central Governor Model of exercise regulation applied to the marathon. Sports Med.37:(in press), 2007.
Noakes TD, Calbet JA, Boushel R, Sondergaard H, Radegran G, Wagner PD and Saltin B. Central regulation of skeletal muscle recruitment explains the reduced maximal cardiac output during exercise in hypoxia. American Journal of Physiology- Regulatory Integrative and Comparative Physiology287:R996-R999, 2004.
Noakes TD, Peltonen JE and Rusko HK. Evidence that a central governor regulates exercise performance during acute hypoxia and hyperoxia. J.Exp.Biol.204:3225- 3234, 2001.
Noakes TD and St Clair Gibson A. Logical limitations to the “catastrophe” models of fatigue during exercise in humans. Br J Sports Med38:648-649, 2004.
Noakes TD, St Clair Gibson A and Lambert EV. From catastrophe to complexity: a novel model of integrative central neural regulation of effort and fatigue during exercise in humans. Br.J.Sports Med.38:511-514, 2004.
Noakes TD, St Clair Gibson A and Lambert EV. From catastrophe to complexity: a novel model of integrative central neural regulation of effort and fatigue during exercise in humans: summary and conclusions. British Journal of Sports Medicine 39:120-124, 2005.
Pugh LG. The logistics of the polar journeys of Scott, Shackleton and Amundsen. Proc.R Soc Med65:42-47, 1972.
Reeves JT, Groves BM, Sutton JR, Wagner PD, Cymerman A, Malconian MK, Rock PB, Young PM and Houston CS. Operation Everest II: preservation of cardiac function at extreme altitude. J Appl Physiol63:531-539, 1987.
Robach P, Tomsen JJ, Mollard P, Calbet J, Boushel R and Lundby C. Recombinant human erythropoietin treatment increases maximal oxygen uptake at moderate altitude. High Altitude Medicine & Biology7:342-343, 2006.
Rontoyannis GP, Skoulis T and Pavlou KN. Energy balance in ultramarathon running. Am J Clin Nutr.49:976-979, 1989.
Saris WH, Erp-Baart MA, Brouns F, Westerterp KR and ten Hoor F. Study on food intake and energy expenditure during extreme sustained exercise: the Tour de France. Int.J Sports Med10 Suppl 1:S26-S31, 1989.
Shackleton E. South: Journals of His Last Expedition to Antarctica. Old Saybrook, CT: Konecky & Knoecky, 1999.
Shackleton E. The heart of the Antarctic. New York, NY: Carroll and Graf Publishers Inc., 1999.
Solomon S. The Coldest March. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001.
St Clair Gibson A and Noakes TD. Evidence for complex system integration and dynamic neural regulation of skeletal muscle recruitment during exercise in humans. Br.J.Sports Med.38:797-806, 2004.
Stroud M. The nutritional demands of very prolonged exercise in man. Proc.Nutr.Soc. 57:55-61, 1998.
Stroud MA. Nutrition and energy balance on the ‘Footsteps of Scott’ expedition 1984-Hum Nutr.Appl.Nutr.41:426-433, 1987. 5
Stroud MA, Coward WA and Sawyer MB. Measurements of energy expenditure using isotope-labeled water (2H2(18)O) during an Arctic expedition. Eur.J Appl.Physiol Occup.Physiol67:375-379, 1993.
Stroud MA, Jackson AA and Waterlow JC. Protein turnover rates of two human subjects during an unassisted crossing of Antarctica. Br J Nutr.76:165-174, 1996.
Stroud MA, Ritz P, Coward WA, Sawyer MB, Constantin-Teodosiu D, Greenhaff PL and Macdonald IA. Energy expenditure using isotope-labeled water (2H218O), exercise performance, skeletal muscle enzyme activities and plasma biochemical parameters in humans during 95 days of endurance exercise with inadequate energy intake. Eur.J Appl.Physiol Occup.Physiol76:243-252, 1997.
Sutton JR, Reeves JT, Wagner PD, Groves BM, Cymerman A, Malconian MK, Rock PB, Young PM, Walter SD and Houston CS. Operation Everest II: oxygen transport during exercise at extreme simulated altitude. J Appl Physiol64:1309-1321, 1988.
Tucker R, Marle T, Lambert EV and Noakes TD. The rate of heat storage mediates an anticipatory reduction in exercise intensity during cycling at a fixed rating of perceived exertion. J.Physiol.574:905-915, 2006.
Tucker R, Rauch L, Harley YX and Noakes TD. Impaired exercise performance in the heat is associated with an anticipatory reduction in skeletal muscle recruitment. Pflugers Arch.448:422-430, 2004.
Wagner PD. Reduced maximal cardiac output at altitude–mechanisms and significance. Respir.Physiol120:1-11, 2000.
Wagner PD, Sutton JR, Reeves JT, Cymerman A, Groves BM and Malconian MK. Operation Everest II: pulmonary gas exchange during a simulated ascent of Mt. Everest. J Appl Physiol63:2348-2359, 1987.
West JB. Lactate during exercise at extreme altitude. Fed.Proc45:2953-2957, 1986.
Westerterp KR, Kayser B, Brouns F, Herry JP and Saris WH. Energy expenditure climbing Mt. Everest. J Appl Physiol73:1815-1819, 1992.
Woodland L. The crooked path to victory. San Francisco: Cycle Publishing, 2003.
Young AJ, Sawka MN, Muza SR, Boushel R, Lyons T, Rock PB, Freund BJ, Waters R, Cymerman A, Pandolf KB and Valeri CR. Effects of erythrocyte infusion on VO2max at high altitude. J Appl Physiol81:252-259, 1996
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2007 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
About this paper
Cite this paper
Noakes, T.D. (2007). The Limits of Human Endurance: What is the Greatest Endurance Performance of All Time? Which Factors Regulate Performance at Extreme Altitude?. In: Roach, R.C., Wagner, P.D., Hackett, P.H. (eds) Hypoxia and the Circulation. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, vol 618. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-75434-5_20
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-75434-5_20
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-0-387-75433-8
Online ISBN: 978-0-387-75434-5
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)