Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

ADHD: Volumetry, Motor, and Oculomotor Functions

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Behavioral Neuroscience of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Its Treatment

Part of the book series: Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences ((CTBN,volume 9))

Abstract

The use of quantitative neuroimaging (volumetry), motor, and oculomotor assessments for studying children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has grown dramatically in the past 20 years. Most evidence to date suggests that anomalous basal ganglia development plays an important role in early manifestation of ADHD; however, widespread cerebellar and cortical delays are also observed and are associated with the behavioral (cognitive, motor, oculomotor) phenotype in children with ADHD. These motor and “executive” control systems appear to develop in parallel, such that both systems display a similar protracted developmental trajectory, with periods of rapid growth in elementary years and continued maturation into young adulthood. Development of each system is dependent on the functional integrity and maturation of related brain regions, suggesting a shared neural circuitry that includes frontostriatal systems and the cerebellum (i.e., those identified as anomalous in studies of volumetry in ADHD). Motor and oculomotor paradigms provide unique opportunities to examine executive control processes that exist at the interface between movement and cognition in children with ADHD, also linking cognition and neurological development. The observed pattern of volumetric differences, together with the known parallel development of motor and executive control systems, appears to predict motor and oculomotor anomalies in ADHD, which are highly relevant, yet commonly overlooked in clinical settings.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Abbreviations

ADHD:

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

aMRI:

Anatomic (MRI)

DAMP:

Deficits in attention motor control, and perception

DAT:

Dopamine transporter

DCD:

Developmental coordination disorder

DRD1/DRD4:

Dopamine receptor (D1 or D4 subtype)

LDDMM:

Large deformation diffeomorphic metric mapping

MABC:

Motor Assessment Battery for Children

MFNA:

Motor Function Neurological Assessment (MFNU)

MGS:

Memory-guided saccades

MRI:

Magnetic resonance imaging

ODD:

Oppositional defiant disorder

SMC:

Supplementary motor complex

TMS:

Transcranial magnetic stimulation

References

  • Addamo PK, Farrow M, Hoy KE, Bradshaw JL, Georgiou-Karistianis N (2007) The effects of age and attention on motor overflow production–A review. Brain Res Rev 54:189–204

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Akkal D, Dum RP, Strick PL (2007) Supplementary motor area and presupplementary motor area: targets of basal ganglia and cerebellar output. J Neurosci 27:10659–10673

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alexander GE, DeLong MR, Strick PL (1986) Parallel organization of functionally segregated circuits linking basal ganglia and cortex. Annu Rev Neurosci 9:357–381

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Almeida LG, Ricardo-Garcell J, Prado H, Barajas L, Fernandez-Bouzas A, Avila D, Martinez RB (2010) Reduced right frontal cortical thickness in children, adolescents and adults with ADHD and its correlation to clinical variables: a cross-sectional study. J Psychiatr Res 44:1214–1223

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson SW, Bechara A, Damasio H, Tranel D, Damasio AR (1999) Impairment of social and moral behavior related to early damage in human prefrontal cortex. Nat Neurosci 2:1032–1037

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong IT, Munoz DP (2003) Inhibitory control of eye movements during oculomotor countermanding in adults with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Exp Brain Res 152:444–452

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Aylward EH, Reiss AL, Reader MJ, Singer HS, Brown JE, Denckla MB (1996) Basal ganglia volumes in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Child Neurol 11:112–115

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barkley RA (2006) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a handbook for diagnosis and treatment, 3rd edn. Guilford Press, New York, NY

    Google Scholar 

  • Bart O, Podoly T, Bar-Haim Y (2006) A preliminary study on the effect of methylphenidate on motor performance in children with comorbid DCD and ADHD. Res Dev Disabil 31:1443–1447

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bart O, Podoly T, Bar-Haim Y (2010) A preliminary study on the effect of methylphenidate on motor performance in children with comorbid DCD and ADHD. Res Dev Disabil 31:1443–1447

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Basser PJ, Pierpaoli C (1996) Microstructural and physiological features of tissues elucidated by quantitative-diffusion-tensor MRI. J Magn Reson B 111:209–219

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Batstra L, Neeleman J, Hadders-Algra M (2003) The neurology of learning and behavioural problems in pre-adolescent children. Acta Psychiatr Scan 108:92–100

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baumgardner T, Singer HS, Denckla MB, Rubin MA, Abrams MT, Colli MJ et al (1996) Morphology of the corpus callosum in children with Tourette syndrome and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neurology 47:477–482

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Berquin PC, Geidd JN, Jacobsen LK, Hamburger SD, Krain AL, Rapoport JL et al (1998) Cerebellum in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a morphometric MRI study. Neurology 50:1087–1093

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Biederman J, Mick E, Faraone SV (2000) Age-dependent decline of symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: impact of remission definition and symptom type. Am J Psychiatry 157:816–818

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Black IB, DiCicco-Bloom E, Dreyfus CF (1990) Nerve growth factor and the issue of mitosis in the nervous system. Curr Top Dev Biol 24:161–192

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bledsoe J, Semrud-Clikeman M, Pliszka SR (2009) A magnetic resonance imaging study of the cerebellar vermis in chronically treated and treatment-naïve children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder combined type. Biol Psychiatry 65:620–624

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brieber S, Neufang S, Bruning N, Kamp-Becker I, Remschmidt H, Herpertz-Dahlmann B, Fink GR, Konrad K (2007) Structural brain abnormalities in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder and patients with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Child Psych Psychiatry 48:1251–1258

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown MR, Vilis T, Everling S (2007) Frontoparietal activation with preparation for antisaccades. J Neurophys 98:1751–1762

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bussing R, Grudnik J, Mason D, Wasiak M, Leonard C (2002) ADHD and conduct disorder: an MRI study in a community sample. World J Biol Psychiatry 3:216–220

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carmona S, Vilarroya O, Bielsa A, Tremols V, Soliva JC, Rovira M et al (2005) Global and regional gray matter reductions in ADHD: a voxel-based morphometric study. Neurosci Lett 389:88–93

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carmona S, Proal E, Haekzema E, Gispert J, Picado M, Moreno I et al (2009) Ventro-striatal reductions underpin symptoms of hyperactivity and impulsivity in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry 66:972–977

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carte ET, Nigg JT, Hinshaw SP (1996) Neuropsychological functioning, motor speed, and language processing in boys with and without ADHD. J Abnorm Child Psych 24:481–498

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Casey BJ, Castellanos FX, Geidd JN, Marsh WL, Hamburger SD, Schubert AB et al (1997) Implication of right frontostriatal circuitry in response inhibition and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 36:374–383

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Castellanos F, Proal E (2009) Location, location, and thickness: volumetric neuroimaging of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder comes of age. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 48:979–981

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Castellanos FX, Giedd JN, Eckburg P, Marsh WL, Vaituzis AC, Kaysen D et al (1994) Quantitative morphology of the caudate nucleus in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry 151:1791–1796

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Castellanos FX, Geidd JN, Marsh WL, Hamburger SD, Vaituzis AC, Dickstein DP et al (1996) Quantitative brain magnetic resonance imaging in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 53:607–616

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Castellanos FX, Marvasti FF, Ducharme JL, Walter JM, Israel ME, Krain A et al (2000) Executive function oculomotor tasks in girls with ADHD. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 39:644–650

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Castellanos FX, Giedd JN, Berquin PC, Walter JM, Sharp W, Tran T, Vaituzis AC, Blumenthal JD, Nelson J, Bastain TM, Zijdenbos A, Evans AC, Rapoport JL (2001) Quantitative brain magnetic resonance imaging in girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 58:289–295

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Castellanos FX, Lee PP, Sharp W, Jeffries NO, Greenstein DK, Clasen LS et al (2002) Developmental trajectories of brain volume abnormalities in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. JAMA 288:1740–1748

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Castellanos FX, Sharp WS, Gottesman RF, Greenstein DK, Giedd JN, Rapoport JL (2003) Anatomic brain abnormalities in monozygotic twins discordant for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry 160:1693–1696

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cherkasova MV, Hechtman L (2009) Neuroimaging in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: beyond the frontostriatal circuitry. Can J Psychiatry 54:651–663

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chess AC, Green JT (2008) Abnormal topography and altered acquisition of conditioned eyeblink responses in a rodent model of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Behav Neurosci 122:63–74

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cole W, Mostofsky S, Larson J, Denckla M, Mahone E (2008) Age-related changes in motor subtle signs among girls and boys with ADHD. Neurology 71:1514–1520

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Curtis CE, Connolly JD (2008) Saccade preparation signals in the human frontal and parietal cortices. J Neurophysiol 99:133–145

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Denckla MB (1974) Development of motor co-ordination in normal children. Dev Med Child Neurol 16:729–741

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Denckla M (2005) Why assess motor functions “early and often?”. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev 11:3

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Denckla MB, Cutting LE (2004) Genetic disorders with a high incidence of learning disabilities. Learn Disabil Res & Pract 19:131–132

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Denckla MB, Rudel RG (1978) Anomalies of motor development in hyperactive boys. Ann Neurol 3:231–233

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Denckla MB, Rudel RG, Chapman C, Krieger J (1985) Motor proficiency in dyslexic children with and without attentional disorders. Arch Neurol 42:228–231

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Diamond A (2000) Close interrelation of motor development and cognitive development and of the cerebellum and prefrontal cortex. Child Dev 71:44–56

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Durston S, Tottenham NT, Thomas KM, Davidson MC, Eigsti IM, Yang Y et al (2003) Differential patterns of striatal activation in young children with and without ADHD. Biol Psychiatry 15:871–878

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Durston S, Hulshoff Pol HE, Schnack HG, Buitelaar JK, Steenhuis MP, Minderaa RB et al (2004) Magnetic resonance imaging of boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and their unaffected siblings. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 43:332–340

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Durston S, van Belle J, de Zeeuw P (2010) Differentiating frontostriatal and fronto-cerebellar circuits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.07.037

  • Ellison-Wright I, Ellison-Wright Z, Bullmore E (2008) Structural brain change in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder identified by meta-analysis. BMC Psychiatry 8:51

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fassbender C, Schweitzer JB (2006) Is there evidence for neural compensation in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder? A review of the functional neuroimaging literature. Clin Psychol Rev 26:445–465

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Filipek PA, Semrud-Clikeman M, Steingard RJ, Renshaw PF, Kennedy DN, Biederman J (1997) Volumetric MRI analysis comparing subjects having attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder with normal controls. Neurology 48:589–601

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fischl B, Dale AM (2000) Measuring the thickness of the human cerebral cortex using magnetic resonance images. Proc Natl Acad Sci 97:11044–11049

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flapper B, Houwen S, Schoemaker M (2006) Fine motor skills and effects of methlphenidate in children with attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder and developmental coordination disorder. Dev Med Child Neurol 48:165–169

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fliers E, Rommelse N, Vermeulen SH, Altink M, Buschgens CJ, Faraone SV et al (2008) Motor coordination problems in children and adolescents with ADHD rated by parents and teachers: Effects of age and gender. J Neural Transm 115:211–220

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fliers E, deHoog M, Franke B, Faraone S, Rommelse N, Buitelaar J et al (2010) Actual motor performance and self perceived motor competence in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder compared with healthy siblings and peers. J Dev Beh Ped 31:35–40

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fredericksen KA, Cutting LE, Kates WR, Mostofsky SH, Singer HS, Cooper KL, Lanham DC, Denckla MB, Kaufmann WE (2002) Disproportionate increases of white matter in right frontal lobe in Tourette syndrome. Neurology 58:85–89

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fukushima J, Hatta T, Fukushima K (2000) Development of voluntary control of saccadic eye movements. I. Age-related changes in normal children. Brain Dev 22:173–180

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Giedd JN, Blumenthal J, Jeffries NO, Castellanos FX, Liu H, Zijdenbos A et al (1999) Brain development during childhood and adolescence: a longitudinal MRI study. Nat Neurosci 2:861–863

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gillberg C, Gillberg IC, Steffenburg S (1992) Siblings and parents of children with autism: a controlled population-based study. Dev Med Child Neurol 34:389–398

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gogtay N, Giedd JN, Lusk L, Hayashi KM, Greenstein D, Vaituzis AC, Nugent TF, Herman DH, Clasen LS, Toga AW, Rapoport JL, Thompson PM (2004) Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood. Proc Natl Acad Sci 101:8174–8179

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Goto Y, Hatakeyama K, Kitama T, Sato T, Kanemura H, Aoyagi K et al (2010) Saccade eye movements as a quantitative measure of frontostriatal network in children with ADHD. Brain Dev 32:347–355

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gustafsson P, Svedin C, Ericsson I, Linden C, Karlsson M, Thernlund G (2010) Reliability and validity of the assessment of neurological soft-signs in children with and without attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder. Dev Med Child Neurol 52:364–370

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Halperin JM, Schulz KP (2006) Revisiting the role of the prefrontal cortex in the pathophysiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychol Bull 132:560–581

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hanisch C, Radach R, Holtkamp K, Herpertz-Dahlmann B, Konrad K (2006) Oculomotor inhibition in children with and without attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). J Neural Trans 113:671–684

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Harvey W, Reid G, Grizenko N, Mbekou V, Ter-Stepanian M, Joober R (2007) Fundamental movement skills and children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: Peer comparisions and stimulant effects. J Abnorm Psychol 35:871–882

    Google Scholar 

  • Hesslinger B, Tebartz van Elst L, Thiel T, Haegele K, Hennig J, Ebert D (2002) Frontoorbital volume reductions in adult patients with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neurosci Lett 328:319–321

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hikosaka O, Takikawa Y, Kawagoe R (2000) Role of the basal ganglia in the control of purposive saccadic eye movements. Physiol Rev 80:953–978

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hill D, Yeo R, Campbell R, Hart B et al (2003) Magnetic resonance imaging correlates of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children. Neuropsychology 17:496–506

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hinshaw SP, Owens EB, Sami N, Fargeon S (2006) Prospective follow-up of girls with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder into adolescence: evidence for continuing cross-domain impairment. J Consult Clin Psychol 74:489–499

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoy KE, Georgiou-Karistianis N, Laycock R, Fitzgerald PB (2007) Using transcranial magnetic stimulation to investigate the cortical origins of motor overflow: a study in schizophrenia and healthy controls. Psychol Med 37:583–594

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hsu J-W, Lee L-C, Chen R-F, Yen C-T, Chen Y-S, Tsai M-L (2010) Striatal volume changes in a rat model of childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatry Res 179:338–341

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huttenlocher PR, Dabholkar AS (1997) Regional differences in synaptogenesis in human cerebral cortex. J Comp Neurol 387:167–178

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hynd GW, Semrud-Clikeman M, Lorys A, Novey ES, Eliopulos D (1990) Brain morphology in developmental dyslexia and attention deficit disorder/hyperactivity. Arch Neurol 47:919–926

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hynd GW, Hern KL, Novey ES, Eliopulos D, Marshall R, Gonzalez JJ et al (1993) Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and asymmetry of the caudate nucleus. J Child Neurol 8:339–347

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kadesjo B, Gillberg C (1998) Attention deficits and clumsiness in Swedish 7-year-old children. Dev Med Child Neurol 40:796–804

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaplan B, Wilson B, Dewey D, Crawford S (1998) DCD may not be a discrete disorder. Hum Mov Sci 17:471–490

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kates WR, Folley BS, Lanham DC, Capone GT, Kaufmann WE (2002) Cerebral growth in Fragile X syndrome: review and comparison with Down syndrome. Microsc Res Tech 57:159–167

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kinney HC, Brody BA, Kloman AS, Gilles FH (1988) Sequence of central nervous system myelination in human infancy. II. Patterns of myelination in autopsied infants. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 47:217–234

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klimkeit E, Sheppard D, Lee P, Bradshaw J (2004) Bimanual coordination deficits in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). J Clin Exper Neuropsych 26:999–1010

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Knyazeva M, Koeda T, Njiokiktjien C, Jonkman EJ, Kurganskaya M, de Sonneville L et al (1997) EEG coherence changes during finger tapping in acallosal and normal children: a study of inter- and intrahemispheric connectivity. Behav Brain Res 89:243–258

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Koerte I, eftimov L, Laubender R, Esslinger O, Schroeder A, Ertl-Wagner B et al (2010) Mirror movements in healthy humans across the lifespan: effects of development and ageing. Dev Med Child Neurol 52:1106–1112

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kotrla KJ, Weinberger DR (2000) Developmental neurobiology. In: Sadock BJ, Sadock VA (eds) Comprehensive textbook of psychiatry, 7th edn. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA, pp 32–40

    Google Scholar 

  • Krause KH, Dresel SH, Krause J, Kung HF, Tatsch K (2000) Increased striatal dopamine transporter in adult patients with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: effects of methylphenidate as measured by single photon emission computed tomography. Neurosci Lett 285:107–110

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kroes M, Kessels AG, Kalff AC, Feron FJ, Vissers YL, Jolles J et al (2002) Quality of movement as predictor of ADHD: Results from a prospective population study in 5- and 6-year-old children. Dev Med & Child Neurol 44:753–760

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lantieri F, Glessner JT, Hakonarson H, Elia J, Devoto M (2010) Analysis of GWAS top hits in ADHD suggests association to two polymorphisms located in genes expressed in the cerebellum. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatri Genet 153B:1127–1133

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Largo RH, Caflisch JA, Hug F, Muggli K, Molnar AA, Molinari L et al (2001) Neuromotor development from 5 to 18 years. Part 1: timed performance. Dev Med Child Neurol 43:436–443

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Largo RH, Fischer JE, Rousson V (2003) Neuromotor development from kindergarten age to adolescence: developmental course and variability. Swiss Med Wkly 133:193–199

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lasker AG, Mazzocco MM, Zee DS (2007) Ocular motor indicators of executive dysfunction in fragile X and Turner syndromes. Brain Cogn 63:203–220

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lavasani N, Stagnitti K (2010) A study on fine motor skills of Iranian children with attention deficit/hyper activity disorder aged from 6 to 11 years. Occup Ther Inter. doi:10.1002/oti.306

  • Leigh JS, Zee DS (2006) The neurology of eye movements, 4th edn. Oxford University Press, New York, NY

    Google Scholar 

  • Lichter DG, Cummings JL (2001) Introduction and overview. In: Lichter DG, Cummings JL (eds) Frontal-subcortical circuits in psychiatric and neurological disorders. Guilford Press, New York, pp 1–43

    Google Scholar 

  • Livesey D, Keen J, Rouse J, White F (2006) The relationship between measures of executive function, motor performance and externalising behaviour in 5- and 6-year-old children. Hum Mov Sci 25:50–64

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Loe IM, Feldman HM, Yasui E, Luna B (2009) Oculomotor performance identifies underlying cognitive deficits in attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 48:431–440

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luders E, Narr KL, Hamilton LS, Phillips OR, Thompson PM, Valle JS et al (2009) Decreased callosal thickness in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry 65:84–88

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luna B, Garver KE, Urban TA, Lazar NA, Sweeney JA (2004) Maturation of cognitive processes from late childhood to adulthood. Child Dev 75:1357–1372

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mackie S, Shaw P, Lenroot R, Pierson R, Greenstein DK, Nugent TF, Sharp WS, Giedd JN, Rapoport JL (2007) Cerebellar development and clinical outcome in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry 164:647–655

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mahone EM, Mostofsky SH, Lasker AG, Zee D, Denckla MB (2009a) Oculomotor anomalies in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: evidence for deficits in response preparation and inhibition. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 48:749–756

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mahone EM, Richardson ME, Crocetti D, O’Brien J, Kaufmann WE, Denckla MB, Mostofsky SH (2009b) Manual MRI parcellation of frontal lobe in boys and girls with ADHD [Abstract]. NeuroImage 47:S70

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mahone EM, Crocetti D, Ranta M, Gaddis A, Cataldo M, Slifer KJ, Denckla MB, Mostofsky SH (2011) A preliminary neuroimaging study of preschool children with ADHD. Clini Neuropsychol Doi: 10.1080/13854046.2011.580784

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh R, Gerber AJ, Peterson BS (2008) Neuroimaging studies of normal brain development and their relevance for understanding childhood neuropsychiatric disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 47:1233–1251

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martin N, Piek J, Bayman G, Levy F, Hay D (2010) An examination of the relationship between movement problems and four common development disorders. Hum Mov Sci 29:799–808

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mataro M, Garcia-Sanchez C, Junque C, Estevez-Gonzalez A, Pujol J (1997) Magnetic resonance imaging measurement of the caudate nucleus in adolescents with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and its relationship with neuropsychological and behavioral measures. Arch Neurol 54:963–968

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McAlonan G, Cheung V, Chua S, Oosterlaan J, Hung S, Tang C et al (2009) Age-related grey matter volume correlates of repsonse inhibition and shifting in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Br J Psychiatry 194:123–129

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer A, Sagvolden T (2006) Fine motor skills in South African children with symptoms of ADHD: influence of subtype, gender, age, and hand dominance. Behav Brain Funct 2:33

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer BU, Röricht S, Woiciechowsky C (1998) Topography of fibers in the human corpus callosum mediating interhemispheric inhibition between the motor cortices. Ann Neurol 43:360–369

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Middleton FA, Strick PL (2001) Cerebellar projections to the prefrontal cortex of the primate. J Neurosci 21:700–712

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mink JW (1996) The basal ganglia: focused selection and inhibition of competing motor programs. Prog Neurobiol 50:381–425

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morris M, Inscore A, Mahone EM (2001) Overflow movement on motor examination in children with ADHD [Abstract]. Arch Clin Neuropsych 16:782

    Google Scholar 

  • Mostofsky SH, Simmonds DJ (2008) Response inhibition and response selection: two sides of the same coin. J Cogn Neurosci 20:751–761

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mostofsky SH, Reiss AL, Lockhart P, Denckla MB (1998) Evaluation of cerebellar size in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Child Neurol 13:434–439

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mostofsky SH, Lasker AG, Cutting L, Denckla MB, Zee DS (2001) Oculomotor abnormalities in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a preliminary study. Neurology 57:423–430

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mostofsky SH, Cooper K, Kates W, Denckla M, Kaufmann W (2002) Smaller prefrontal and premotor volumes in boys with ADHD. Biol Psychiatry 52:785–794

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mostofsky SH, Newschaffer CJ, Denckla MB (2003) Overflow movements predict impaired response inhibition in children with ADHD. Percept Mot Skills 97:1315–1331

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mostofsky SH, Burgess MP, Gidley Larson JC (2007) Increased motor cortex white matter volume predicts motor impairment in autism. Brain 130:2117–2122

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mrzljak L, Uylings HB, Van Eden CG, Judas M (1990) Neuronal development in human prefrontal cortex in prenatal and postnatal stages. Prog Brain Res 85:185–222

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Munoz DP, Everling S (2004) Look away: the anti-saccade task and the voluntary control of eye movement. Nat Rev Neurosci 5:218–228

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Munoz DP, Broughton JR, Goldring JE, Armstrong IT (1998) Age-related performance of human subjects on saccadic eye movement tasks. Exper Brain Res 121:391–400

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nachev P, Kennard C, Husain M (2008) Functional role of the supplementary and pre-supplementary motor areas. Nat Rev Neurosci 9:856–869

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Narr K, Woods R, Lin J, Kim J, Phillips O, Del’Homme M et al (2009) Widespread cortical thinning is a robust anatomical marker for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 48:1014–1022

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nass R (1985) Mirror movement asymmetries in congenital hemiparesis: the inhibition hypothesis revisited. Neurology 35:1059–1062

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Neale BM, Lasky-Su J, Anney R, Franke B, Zhou K, Maller JB, Vasquez AA, Asherson P, Chen W, Banaschewski T, Buitelaar J, Ebstein R, Gill M, Miranda A, Oades R, Roeyers H, Rothenberger A, Sergeant J, Steinhausen HC, Sonuga-Barke E, Mulas F, Taylor E, Laird N, Lange C, Daly M, Faraone S (2008) Genome-wide association scan of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Med Genet Part B 147B:1337–1344

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nigg JT, Butler KM, Huang-Pollock CL, Henderson JM (2002) Inhibitory processes in adults with persistent childhood onset ADHD. J Consult Clin Psychol 70:153–157

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Driscoll GA, Depatie L, Holahan AL, Savion-Lemieux T, Barr RG, Jolicoeur C et al (2005) Executive functions and methylphenidate response in subtypes of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry 57:1452–1460

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ohashi K, Vitaliano G, Polcari A, Teicher MH (2010) Unraveling the nature of hyperactivity in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 67:388–396

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paus T (1991) Two modes of central gaze fixation maintenance and oculomotor distractibility in schizophrenics. Schizphr Res 5:145–152

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Paus T, Collins DL, Evans AC, Leonard G, Pike B, Zijdenbos A (2001) Maturation of white matter in the human brain: a review of magnetic resonance studies. Brain Res Bull 54:255–266

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pennington BF, Ozonoff S (1996) Executive functions and developmental psychopathology. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 37:51–87

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Piek JP, Dyck MJ, Nieman A, Anderson M, Hay D, Smith LM et al (2004) The relationship between motor coordination, executive functioning and attention in school aged children. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 19:1063–1076

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pierrot-Deseilligny C, Rivaud S, Gaymard B, Agid Y (1991) Cortical control of reflexive visually-guided saccades. Brain 114:1473–1485

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pitcher TM, Piek JP, Hay DA (2003) Fine and gross motor ability in boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Dev Med Child Neurol 45:525–535

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Plessen K, Bansal R, Zhu H, Whiteman R, Amat J, Quakenbush G et al (2006) Hippocampus and amygdala morphology in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 63:795–807

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pliszka SR, Glahn DC, Semrud-Clikeman M, Franklin C, Perez R III, Xiong J et al (2006) Neuroimaging of inhibitory control areas in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder who were treatment naive or in long-term treatment. Am J Psychiatry 163:1052–1060

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Qiu A, Crocetti D, Adler M, Mahone EM, Denckla MB, Miller M et al (2009) Basal ganglia volume and shape in children with ADHD. Am J Psychiatry 166:74–82

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ranta ME, Crocetti D, Clauss JA, Kraut MA, Mostofsky SH, Kaufmann WE (2009) Manual MRI parcellation of the frontal lobe. Psychiatry Res 172:147–154

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rasmussen R, Gillberg C (2000) Natural outcome of ADHD with developmental coordination disorder at age 22 years: Acontrolled, longitudinal, community-based study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 39:1424–1431

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reiersen A, Constantino J, Todd R (2008) Co-occurrence of motor problems and autistic symptoms in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 47:662–672

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roebers CM, Kauer M (2009) Motor and cognitive control in a normative sample of 7-year-olds. Dev Sci 12:175–181

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roeder MB, Mahone EM, Gidley Larson J, Mostofsky SH, Cutting LE, Goldberg MC et al (2008) Left-right differences on timed motor examination in children. Child Neuropsychol 14:249–262

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rommelse N, Altink M, Oosterlaan J, Buschgens C, Buitelaar J, DeSonneville L et al (2007) Motor control in children with ADHD and non-affected siblings: deficits most pronounced using the left hand. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 48:1071–1079

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ross RG, Hommer D, Breiger D, Varley C, Radant A (1994) Eye movement task related to frontal lobe functioning in children with attention deficit disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 33:869–874

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rubia K, Russell T, Overmeyer S, Brammer MJ, Bullmore ET, Sharma T et al (2001) Mapping motor inhibition: conjunctive brain activations across different versions of go/no-go and stop tasks. Neuroimage 13:250–261

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sasayama D, Hayashida A, Yamasue H, Harada Y, Kaneko T, Kasai K et al (2010) Neuroanatomical correlates of attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder accounting for comorbid oppositinal defiant disorder and conduct disorder. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 64:394–402

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sato M, Aotani H, Hattori R, Funato M (2004) Behavioral outcome including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder/hyperactivity disorder and minor neurological signs in perinatal high-risk newborns at 4–6 years of age with relation to risk factors. Ped Inter 46:346–352

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schall JD (1997) Visuomotor areas of the frontal lobe. Cereb Cortex 12:527–638

    Google Scholar 

  • Schnoebelen S, Semrud-Clikeman M, Pliszka SR (2010) Corpus callosum anatomy in chronically treated and stimulant naïve ADHD. J Atten Disord 14:256–266

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schrimsher GW, Billingsley RL, Jackson EF, Moore BD III (2002) Caudate nucleus volume asymmetry predicts attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptomatology in children. J Child Neurol 17:877–884

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schuerholz LJ, Cutting L, Mazzocco MM, Singer HS, Denckla MB (1997) Neuromotor functioning in children with Tourette syndrome with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Child Neurol 12:438–442

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Semrud-Clikeman M, Steingard RJ, Filipek P, Biederman J, Bekken K, Renshaw PF (2000) Using MRI to examine brain-behavior relationships in males with attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 39:477–484

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sergeant J (2000) The cognitive-energetic model: an empirical approach to attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 24:7–12

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw P (2010) The shape of things to come in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry 167:363–365

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw P, Rabin C (2009) New insights into attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder using structural neuroimaging. Curr Psychiatry Rep 11:393–398

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw P, Lerch J, Greenstein D, Sharp W, Clasen L, Evans A et al (2006) Longitudinal mapping of cortical thickness and clinical outcome in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 63:540–549

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw P, Eckstrand K, Sharp W, Blumenthal J, Lerch JP, Greenstein D, Clasen L, Evans A, Giedd J, Rapoport JL (2007a) Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is characterized by a delay in cortical maturation. PNAS 104:19649–19654

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw P, Gornick M, Lerch J, Addington A, Seal J, Greenstein D et al (2007b) Polymorphisms of the dopamine D4 receptor, clinical outcome, and cortical structure in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 64:921–931

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw P, Lalonde F, Lepage C, Rabin C, Eckstrand K, Sharp W, Greenstein D, Evans A, Giedd JN, Raporport J (2009a) Development of cortical asymmetry in typically developing children and its disruption in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 66:888–896

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw P, Sharp WS, Morrison M, Eckstrand K, Greenstein DK, Clasen LS, Evans AC, Rapoport JL (2009b) Psychostimulant treatment and the developing cortex in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry 166:58–63

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shook D, Brady C, Lee P, Kenealy L, Murphy E, Gaillard W et al (2010) Effect of dopamine transporter genotype on caudate volume in childhood ADHD and controls. Am J Med Gen Part B 156B:28–35

    Google Scholar 

  • Sobel L, Bansal R, Maia T, Sanchez J, Mazzone L, Durkin K et al (2010) Basal ganglia surface morphology and the effects of stimulant medications in youth with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. AJP in Advance 167:977–986

    Google Scholar 

  • Soliva JC, Fauquet J, Bielsa A, Rovira M, Carmona S, Ramos-quiroga JA et al (2010) Quantitative MR analysis of caudate abnormalities in pediatric ADHD: proposal for a diagnostic test. Psychiatry Res 182:238–243

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sonuga-Barke EJS, Halperin JM (2010) Developmental phenotypes and causal pathways in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: potential targets for early intervention? J Child Psych Psychiatry 51:368–389

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sowell ER, Thompson PM, Welcome SE, Henkenius AL, Toga AW, Peterson BS (2003) Cortical abnormalities in children and adolescents with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Lancet 362:1699–1707

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sowell ER, Thompson PM, Leonard CM, Welcome SE, Kan E, Toga AW (2004) Longitudinal mapping of cortical thickness and brain growth in normal children. J Neurosci 24:8223–8231

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Steger J, Imhof K, Coutts E, Gundelfinger R, Steinhausen HC, Brandeis D (2001) Attentional and neuromotor deficits in ADHD. Dev Med Child Neurol 43:172–179

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stray L, Stray T, Iversen S, Ruud A, Ellertsen B (2009a) Methylphenidate improves motor functions in children diagnosed with hyperkinetic disorder. Behav Brain Funct 5:21

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stray L, Stray T, Iversen S, Ruud A, Ellertsen B, Tonnessen F (2009b) The motor function neurological assessment (MFNU) as an indicator of motor function problems in boys with ADHD. Behav Brain Funct 5:22

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stuphorn V, Taylor TL, Schall JD (2000) Performance monitoring by the supplementary eye field. Nat Rev Neurosci 408:857–860

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Suskauer SJ, Simmonds DJ, Fotedar S, Blankner JG, Pekar JJ, Denckla MB et al (2008) Functional magnetic resonance imaging evidence for abnormalities in response selection in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: differences in activation associated with response inhibition but not habitual motor response. J Cogn Neurosci 20:478–493

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tiemeier H, Lenroot RK, Greenstein DK, Tran L, Pierson R, Giedd JN (2010) Cerebellum develoopment during childhood and adolescence: a longitudinal morphometric MRI study. NeuroImage 49:63–70

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Touwen B (1987) The meaning and value of soft signs in neurology. Grune & Stratton, Inc., New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Touwen B, Sporrel T (1979) Soft signs and MBD. Dev Med Child Neurol 21:528–538

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Valera EM, Faraone SV, Murray KE, Seidman LJ (2006) Meta-analysis of structural imaging findings in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry 61:1361–1369

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van der Stigchel S, Rommelse N, Geldof C, Witlox J, Oosterlaan J, Sergeant J et al (2007) Oculomotor capture in ADHD. Cogn Neuropsychol 24:535–549

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van Meel CS, Oosterlaan J, Heslenfeld DJ, Sergeant JA (2005) Motivational effects on motor timing in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 44:451–460

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Volpe JJ (1995) Neurology of the newborn, 3rd edn. WB Saunders, Philadelphia, PA

    Google Scholar 

  • Voogd J, Schraa-Tam CK, van der Geest JN, De Zeeuw CI (2010) Visuomotor cerebellum in human and nonhuman primates. Cerebellum. doi:10.1007/s12311-010-0204-7

  • Waber DP, Mann MB, Merola J (1985) Motor overflow and attentional processes in normal school-age children. Dev Med Child Neurol 27:491–497

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wellington TM, Semrud-Clikeman M, Gregory AL, Murphy JM, Lancaster JL (2006) Magnetic resonance imaging volumetric analysis of the putamen in children with ADHD: combined type versus control. J Atten Disord 10:171–180

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wolosin SM, Richardson ME, Hennessy J, Denckla MB, Mostofsky SH (2009) Abnormal cerebral cortex structure in children with ADHD. Hum Brain Mapp 30:175–184

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Kennedy Krieger Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 1750 East Fairmount Avenue, Baltimore, MD, 21231, USA

    E. Mark Mahone

Authors
  1. E. Mark Mahone
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to E. Mark Mahone .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. , Dept of Neurosci, Physiol & Pharmacol, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E6BT, United Kingdom

    Clare Stanford

  2. , Human Development & Applied Psychology, The Ontario Institute for Studies in Edu, Bloor Street West 252, Toronto, M5S1V6, Canada

    Rosemary Tannock

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2011 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Mahone, E.M. (2011). ADHD: Volumetry, Motor, and Oculomotor Functions. In: Stanford, C., Tannock, R. (eds) Behavioral Neuroscience of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Its Treatment. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences, vol 9. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2011_146

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation