Abstract
In the present work, we first clarify a more precise definition of instantaneous optical angles in control tasks such as interception. We then test how well two interceptive strategies that have been proposed for catching fly balls account for human Frisbee-catching behavior. The first strategy is to maintain the ball’s image along a linear optical trajectory (LOT). The second is to keep vertical optical ball velocity decreasing while maintaining constant lateral optical velocity. We found that an LOT accounted for an average of over 96% of the variance in optical Frisbee movement, while maintenance of vertical and lateral optical velocities was random. This work confirms a common interception strategy used across interceptive tasks, extending to complex target trajectories.
References
Baud-Bovy, G., & Viviani, P. (1998). Pointing to kinesthetic targets in space. Journal of Neuroscience, 18, 1528–1545.
Bloomfield, L. A. (1999). The flight of the Frisbee. Scientific American, 280, 132.
Brancazio, P. J. (1985). Looking into Chapman’s homer: The physics of judging a fly ball. American Journal of Physics, 53, 849–855.
Chapman, S. (1968). Catching a baseball. American Journal of Physics, 36, 868–870.
Colby, C. L., & Duhamel, J.-R. (1996). Spatial representations for action in parietal cortex. Cognitive Brain Research, 5, 105–115.
Colby, C. L., Duhamel, J.-R., & Goldberg, M. E. (1995). Oculocentric spatial representation in parietal cortex. Cerebral Cortex, 5, 470–481.
Collett, T. S., & Land, M. F. (1975). Visual control of flight behaviour in the hoverfly, Syritta pipiens L. Journal of Comparative Physiology, 99, 1–66.
Cuijpers, R. H., Kappers, A. M. L., & Koenderink, J. J. (2001). On the role of external reference frames on visual judgements of parallelity. Acta Psychologica, 108, 283–302.
Cutting, J. E., Springer, K., Braren, P. A., & Johnson, S. H. (1992). Wayfinding on foot from information in retinal, not optical, flow. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 121, 41–72.
Cutting, J. E., & Wang, R. F. (2000). Heading judgments in minimal environments: The value of a heuristic when invariants are rare. Perception & Psychophysics, 62, 1146–1159.
Dannemiller, J. L., Babler, T. G., & Babler, B. L. (1996). On catching fly balls. Science, 273, 256–257.
Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Jablonski, P. G. (1999). A rare predator exploits prey escape behavior: The role of tail-fanning and plumage contrast in foraging of the painted redstart (Myioborus pictus). Behavioral Ecology, 10, 7–14.
Loomis, J. M., & Philbeck, J. W. (1999). Is the anisotropy of perceived 3-D shape invariant across scale? Perception & Psychophysics, 61, 397–402.
McBeath, M. K., Shaffer, D. M., & Kaiser, M. K. (1995). How baseball outfielders determine where to run to catch fly balls. Science, 268, 569–573.
McBeath, M. K., Shaffer, D. M., & Kaiser, M. K. (1996). On catching fly balls. Science, 273, 258–260.
McBeath, M. K., Shaffer, D. M., & Sugar, T. G. (2002). Catching baseball pop flies: Individual differences in aggressiveness and handedness. Paper presented at the 43rd Annual Meeting of the Psychonomic Society, Kansas City, MO.
McBeath, M. K., Sugar, T. G., Morgan, S. E., Oberle, C. D., Mundhra, K., & Suluh, A. (2002, May). Human and robotic catching of dropped balls and balloons: Fielders still try to make the image of the projectile rise. Paper presented at the 2nd Annual Meeting of the Vision Sciences Society, Sarasota, FL.
McBeath, M. K., Sugar, T. G., & Shaffer, D. M. (2001, May). Comparison of active versus passive ball catching control algorithms using robotic simulations. Paper presented at the 1st Annual Meeting of the Vision Sciences Society, Sarasota, FL.
McLeod, P., & Dienes, Z. (1996). Do fielders know where to go to catch the ball or only how to get there? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance, 22, 531–543.
McLeod, P., Reed, N., & Dienes, Z. (2001). Toward a unified fielder theory: What we do not yet know about how people run to catch a ball. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance, 27, 1347–1355.
McLeod, P., Reed, N., & Dienes, Z. (2003). How fielders arrive in time to catch the ball. Nature, 426, 244–245.
McLeod, P., Reed, N., & Dienes, Z. (2006). The generalized optic acceleration cancellation theory of catching. Journal of ExperimentalPsychology: Human Perception & Performance, 32, 139–148.
Michaels, C. F., & Oudejans, R. R. D. (1992). The optics and actions of catching fly balls: Zeroing out optical acceleration. Ecological Psychology, 4, 199–222.
Olberg, R. M., Worthington, A. H., & Venator, K. R. (2000). Prey pursuit and interception in dragonflies. Journal of Comparative Physiology, 186, 155–162.
Oudejans, R. R. D., Michaels, C. F., Bakker, F. C., & Davids, K. (1999). Shedding some light on catching in the dark: Perceptual mechanisms for catching fly balls. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance, 25, 531–542.
Peper, L., Bootsma, R. J., Mestre, D. R., & Bakker, F. C. (1994). Catching balls: How to get the hand to the right place at the right time. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance, 20, 591–612.
Pollack, H. N., Adair, R. K., Chodosh, L. A., Lifson, L. E., Tabin, C., Jacobs, R. A., McBeath, M. K., et al. (1995). Play ball! [Letters and response related to McBeath et al., 1995]. Science, 268, 1681–1685.
Proffitt, D. R., Bhalla, M., Gossweiler, R., & Midgett, J. (1995). Perceiving geographical slant. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 2, 409–428.
Regan, D. (1997). Visual factors in hitting and catching. Journal of Sport Sciences, 15, 533–558.
Regan, D., & Gray, R. (2001). Hitting what one wants to hit and missing what one wants to miss. Vision Research, 41, 3321–3329.
Royden, C. S., & Hildreth, E. C. (1996). Human heading judgments in the presence of moving objects. Perception & Psychophysics, 58, 836–856.
Schneider, B., Ehrlich, D. J., Stein, R., Flaum, M., & Mangel, S. (1978). Changes in the apparent lengths of lines as a function of degree of retinal eccentricity. Perception, 7, 215–223.
Shaffer, D. M., Krauchunas, S. M., Eddy, M., & McBeath, M. K. (2004). How dogs navigate to catch Frisbees. Psychological Science, 15, 437–441.
Shaffer, D. M., & McBeath, M. K. (1997). [Responses concerning catching fly balls hit off to the side and directly toward an outfielder]. Unpublished data.
Shaffer, D. M., & McBeath, M. K. (2002). Baseball outfielders maintain a linear optical trajectory when tracking uncatchable fly balls. ournal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance, 28, 335–348.
Shaffer, D. M., McBeath, M. K., Roy, W. L., & Krauchunas, S. M. (2003). A linear optical trajectory informs the fielder where to run to the side to catch fly balls. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance, 29, 1244–1250.
Simmons, J. A., Fenton, M. B., & O’Farrell, M. J. O. (1979). Echolocation and pursuit of prey by bats. Science, 203, 16–21.
Sugar, T. G., & McBeath, M. K. (2001). Robotic modeling of mobile catching as a tool for understanding biological interceptive behavior. Brain & Behavioral Sciences, 24, 1078–1080.
Suluh, A., Sugar, T. G., & McBeath, M. K. (2001, May). Spatial navigational principles: Applications to mobile robotics. Paper presented at the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Seoul, Korea.
Todd, J. T., Oomes, A. H. J., Koenderink, J. J., & Kappers, A. M. L. (2001). On the affine structure of perceptual space. Psychological Science, 12, 191–196.
Vetter, P., Goodbody, S. J., & Wolpert, D. M. (1999). Evidence for an eye-centered spherical representation of the visuomotor map. Journal of Neurophysiology, 81, 935–939
Watts, R. G., & Bahill, A. T. (2000). Keep your eye on the ball: Curve balls, knuckleballs, and fallacies of baseball. New York: Freeman.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
S.M.K. is no longer at Saint Anselm College.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Shaffer, D.M., McBeath, M.K., Krauchunas, S.M. et al. Evidence for a generic interceptive strategy. Perception & Psychophysics 70, 145–157 (2008). https://doi.org/10.3758/PP.70.1.145
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3758/PP.70.1.145
Keywords
- Visual Angle
- Lateral Angle
- Background Scenery
- Optical Position
- Spherical Projection







