Abstract
An enduring problem in the study of human state-dependent retrieval concerns the apparent unpredictability of the phenomenon. Although many investigators have observed that utilization of information in episodic memory critically depends for its success on restoration, at the time of attempted retrieval, of the pharmacological state in which the information was originally acquired, many others have been unable to find evidence of such state-dependent effects. Indeed, negative results are so common that human state dependence has come to be popularly regarded as an untrustworthy phenomenon of little practical or theoretical significance. The message of this article is that the unpredictability of state-dependent effects in man is more apparent than real. Evidence is presented to the effect that, with very few exceptions, failures to demonstrate state dependence are restricted to situations in which utilization of stored information is tested in the presence of discretely identifiable retrieval cues, and successes, to situations in which retrieval occurs in the absence of any observable reminders. It is also shown that when the conditions of retrieval, with respect to the presence or absence of explicit cues, remain constant, the probability of demonstrating state dependence also remains constant across a relatively broad spectrum of experimental conditions. Speculations about the nature of the cognitive mechanisms underlying the so-called “cuing effect” in human state dependence are offered, and promising new directions for research are outlined.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Reference Notes
Storm, T., Caird, W. K., & Korbin, E.The effects of alcohol on rote verbal learning and retention. Paper presented at the annual convention of the Canadian Psychological Association, Vancouver, British Columbia, April 1965.
Eich, J. E.Dissociation of memory: A state of the researchart Report. Paper presented at the conference on alcohol and human memory, Laguna Beach, California, August 1976.
Eich, J. E., Stillman, R. C., Weingartner, H., Beardsley, H., & Wyatt, R. J.Availability vs. accessibility of information in state-dependent memory. Paper presented at the annual convention of the American Psychological Association, New Orleans, Louisiana, August 1974.
Swanson, J. M., Eich, J. E., & Kinsbourne, M.Stimulantrelated state-dependent retrieval in free recall. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Psychonomic Society, San Antonio, Texas, November 1978.
Weingartner, H.Mood-state dissociation. Paper presented at the Asilomar workshop on the psychological effects of abusable drugs, Monterey, California, January 1978.
References
Abernethy, E. M. The effect of changed environmental conditions upon the results of college examinations.Journal of Psychology, 1940,10, 293–301.
Adams, N., Castro, A. D., &Clark, D. L. State-dependent learning with a general anesthetic (Isoflurane) in man. T.-L-T.Journal of Life Sciences, 1974,4, 125–134.
Baddeley, A. D.The psychology of memory. New York: Basic Books, 1976.
Bahrick H. P. Availability versus accessibility of retrieval cues in the retention of a categorized list.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1971,89, 117–125.
Battig, W. F., & Montague, W. E. Category norms for verbal items in 56 categories: A replication and extension of the Connecticut category norms.Journal of Experimental Psychology Monograph, 1969,80 (No. 3, Pt. 2).
Birnbaum, I. M., Parker, E. S., Hartley, J. T., &Noble, E. P. Alcohol and memory: Retrieval processes.Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1978,17, 325–336.
Bower, G. H., Monteiro, K. P., &Gillman, S. G. Emotional mood as a context for learning and recall.Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1978,17, 573–585.
Bustamante, J. A., Jordá, A., Vila, M., González, A., &Insua, A. State dependent learning in humans.Physiology & Behavior, 1970,5, 793–796.
Bustamante, J. A., Rosselló, A., Jordán, A., Pradere, E., &Insua, A. Learning and drugs.Physiology & Behavior, 1968,3, 553–555.
Cohen, M. J., &Rickles, W. H., Jr. Performance on a verbal learning task by subjects of heavy past marihuana usage.Psychopharmacologia (Berlin), 1974,37, 323–330.
Connelly, J. F., Connelly, J. M., &Epps, J. O. Disruption of dissociated learning in a discrimination paradigm by emotionally-important stimuli.Psychopharmacologia (Berlin), 1973,30, 275–282.
Connelly, J. F., Connelly, J. M., &Phifer, R. Disruption of state-dependent learning (memory retrieval) by emotionallyimportant stimuli.Psychopharmacologia (Berlin), 1975,41, 139–143.
Cowan, J. D. Implications of state dependent learning for drug abuse.Problems of Drug Dependence, 1976,38, 888–921.
Craik, F. I. M., &Tulving, E. Depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 1975,104, 268–294.
Crow, L. T., &Ball, C. Alcohol state-dependency and autonomic reactivity.Psychophysiology, 1975,12, 702–706.
Darley, C. F., Tinklenberg, J. R., Roth, W. T., &Atkinson, R. C. The nature of storage deficits and state-dependent retrieval under marihuana.Psychopharmacologia (Berlin), 1974,37, 139–149.
Deese, J., &Hulse, S. H.The psychology of learning (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967.
Deutsch, J. A., &Roll, S. K. Alcohol and asymmetrical statedependency: A possible explanation.Behavioral Biology, 1973,8, 273–278.
Downey, D. J. State-dependent learning with centrally and noncentrally active drugs.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1975,5, 281–284.
Eich, J. E. State-dependent retrieval of information in human episodic memory. In I. M. Birnbaum & E. S. Parker (Eds.),Alcohol and human memory. Hillsdale, N.J: Erlbaum, 1977.
Eich, J. E., Weingartner, H., Stillman, R. C., &Gillin, J. C. State-dependent accessibility of retrieval cues in the retention of a categorized list.Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1975,14, 408–417.
Fisher, R. P., &Craik, F. I. M. The interaction between encoding and retrieval operations in cued recall.Journal Experimental Ps.vchology: Human Learning and Memory, 1977,3, 701–711.
Flexser, A. J., &Tulving, E. Retrieval independence in recognition and recall.Psychological Review, 1978,85, 153–171.
Godnen, D. R., &Baddeley, A. D. Context-dependent memory in two natural environments: On land and underwater.British Journal of Psychology, 1975,66, 325–332.
Goodman, L. S., &Gilman, A.The pharmacological basis of therapeutics (5th ed.). New York: Macmillan, 1975.
Goodwin, D. W., Powell, B., Bremer, D., Hoine, H., &Stern, J. Alcohol and recall: State dependent effects in man.Science, 1969,163, 1358–1360.
Hays, W. L.Statistics for psychologists (2nd ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, 1973.
Hilgard, E. R., &Bower, G. H.Theories of learning (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, N. J: Prentice-Hall, 1975.
Hill, S. Y., Schwin, R., Powell, B., &Goodwin, D. W. State-dependent effects of marihuana on human memory.Nature, 1973,243, 241–242.
Hinrichsen, J. J., Katahn, M., &Levenson, R. W. Alcoholinduced state-dependent learning in non-alcoholics.Pharmacology, Biochemistry & Behavior, 1974,2, 293–296.
Holloway, F. A. State dependent retrieval based on time of day. In B. T. Ho, D. W. Richards III, & D. L. Chute (Eds.),Drug discrimination and state dependent learning. New York: Academic Press, 1978.
Hurst, P. M., Radlow, R., Chubb, N. C., &Bagley, S. K. Effects of d-amphetamine on acquisition, persistence, and recall.American Journal of Psychology, 1969,82, 307–319.
Hyde, T. S., &Jenkins, J. J. Differential effects of incidental tasks on the organization of recall of a list of highly associated words.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1969,82, 472–481.
Jones, B. M. Memory impairment on the ascending and descending limbs of the blood alcohol curve.Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1973,82, 24–32.
Ley, P., Jain, V. K., Swinson, R. P., Eaves, D., Bradshaw, P. W., Kincey, J. A., Crowder, R., &Abbiss, S. A. A state-dependent learning effect produced by amylobarbitone sodium.British Journal of Psychiatry, 1972,120, 511–515.
Liljequist, R., Linnoila, M., & Mattila, M. J. State-dependent effect of diazepam on learning.British Journal of Pharmacology, 1977,59, 518(P).
Lisman, S. A. Alcoholic “blackout”: State dependent learning?Archives of General Psychiatry, 1974,30, 46–53.
McNemar, Q. At random: Sense and nonsense.American Psychologist, 1960,15, 295–300.
MELTON, A. W., JR. Editorial.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1962,64, 553–557.
Miller, M. E., Adesso, V. J., Fleming, J. P., Gino, A., &Lauerman, R. Effects of alcohol on the storage and retrieval processes of heavy social drinkers.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 1978,4, 246–255.
Moscovich, M., &Craik, F. I. M. Depth of processing, retrieval cues, and uniqueness of encoding as factors in recall.Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1976,15, 447–458.
Osborn, A. G., Bunker, J. P., Cooper, L. F., Frank, G. S., &Hilgard, E. R. Effects of thiopental sedation on learning and memory.Science, 1967,157, 574–576.
Overton, D. A. State-dependent or “dissociated” learning produced with pentobarbital.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1964,57, 3–12.
Overton, D. A. State-dependent learning produced by depressants and atropine-like drugs.Psychopharmacologia (Berlin), 1966,10, 6–31.
Overton, D. A. Discriminative control of behavior by drug states. In T. Thompson & R. Pickens (Eds.),Stimulus properties of drugs. New York: Appleton, 1971.
Overton, D. A. State-dependent learning produced by alcohol and its relevance to alcoholism. In B. Kisser & A. Begleiter (Eds.),The biology of alcoholism: Physiology and behavior (Vol. 2). New York: Plenum Press, 1972.
Overton, D. A. State-dependent learning produced by addicting drugs. In S. Fisher & A. M. Freedman (Eds.),Opiate addiction: Origins and treatment. Washington, D.C: Winston, 1973.
Overton, D. A. Experimental methods for the study of statedependent learning.Federation Proceedings, 1974,33, 1800–1813,
Parker, E. S., Biknbaum, I. M., &Noble, E. P. Alcohol and memory: Storage and state dependency.Journal of Verbal Learning and VerbaI Behavior, 1976,15, 691–702.
Petersen, A. C. Comments on Professor Goleman's article (published as a letter to the editor).Psychology Today, 1979,12, 7.
Perersen, R. C. Retrieval failures in alcohol state-dependent learning.Psychopharmacology, 1977,55, 141–146.
Powell, B. J., Goodwin, D. W., Janes, C. L., &Hoine, H. State-dependent effects of alcohol on autonomic orienting responses.Psychonomic Science, 1971,25, 305–306.
Rickles, W. H., Jr.,Cohen, M. J., Whitaker, C. A., &McIntyre, K. E. Marihuana induced state-dependent verbal learning.Psychopharmacologia (Berlin), 1973,30, 349–354.
Roediger, H. L., III. Current status of research on retrieval processes in memory.Polygraph, 1975,4, 304–310.
Roffman, M., Marshall, P., Silverstein, A., Karkalas, J., Smith, N., &Lal, H. Failure to demonstrate “amphetamine state” controlling learned behavior in humans. In J. M. Singh, L. Miller, & H. Lal (Eds.),Drug addiction: Clinical and sociolegal aspects (Vol. 2). Mr. Kisco, N.Y: Futura, 1972.
Siegel, S.Nonparametric statistics for the behavioral sciences. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1956.
Smith, S., Glenberg, A. M., &Bjork, R. A. Environmental context and human memory.Memory & Cognition, 1978,6, 342–353.
Smith, S., &Guthrie, E. R.General psychology in terms of behavior. New York: Appleton, 1921.
Stillman, R. C., Weingartner, H., Wyatt, R. J., Gillin, J. C., &Eich, J. E. State-dependent (dissociative) effects of marihuana on human memory.Archives of General Psychiatry, 1974,31, 81–85.
Swanson, J. M., &Kinsbourne, M. Stimulant-related statedependent learning in hyperactive children.Science, 1976,192, 1354–1357.
Swanson, J. M., &Kinsbouane, M. The 2 × 2 design reconsidered: Limitations imposed by the statistical model. In F. C. Colpaert & J. A. Rosecrans (Eds.),Stimulus properties of drugs: Ten years of progress. Amsterdam: Elsevier/North-Holland Biomedical Press, 1978.
Tarter, R. E. Dissociate effects of ethyl alcohol.Psychonomic Science, 1970,20, 342–343.
Tulving, E. Episodic and semantic memory. In E. Tulving & W. Donaldson (Eds.),Organization of memory. New York: Academic Press, 1972.
Tulwng, E. Ecphoric processes in recall and recognition. In J. Brown (Ed.),Recall and recognition. London: Wiley, 1976.
Tulving, E. Relation between encoding specificity and levels of processing. In L. S. Cermak & F. I. M. Craik (Eds.),Levels of processing and human memory. Hillsdale, N.J: Erlbaum, 1979.
Tulving, E., &Bower, G. H. The logic of memory representations. In G. H. Bower (Ed.),The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 8). New York: Academic Press, 1974.
Tulving, E., &Thomson, D. M. Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory.Psychological Review, 1973,80, 353–373.
Tulving, E., &Watkins, M. J. Structure of memory traces.Psychological Review, 1975,82, 261–275.
Weingartner, H. Human state dependent learning. In B. T. Ho, D. W. Richards III, & D. L. Chute (Eds.),Drug discrimination and state dependent learning. New York: Academic Press, 1978.
Weingartner, H., Adefris, W., Eich, J. E., &Murphy, D. L. Encoding-imagery specificity in alcohol state-dependent learning.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning andMemory, 1976,2, 83–87.
Weingartner, H., Eich, J. E., &Allen, R. Alcohol state dependent associative processes.Proceedings of the American PsychologicalAssociation, 1973,8, 1009–1010.
Weingantner, H., &Faxllace, L. A. Alcohol state-dependent learning in man.Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 1971,153, 395–406.
Weingartner, H., Miller, H., &Murphy, D. L. Mood-statedependent retrieval of verbal associations.Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1977,116, 276–284.
Wickelgren, W. A. Alcoholic intoxication and memory storage dynamics.Memory & Cognition, 1975,3, 385–389.
Wood, G. Category names as cues for the recall of category instances.Psychonomic Science, 1967,9, 323–324.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Additional information
This article is based on a dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology at the University of Toronto in candidacy for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Insightful criticisms of the manuscript were offered by Fergus I. M. Craik, Janet A. Metcalfe, Bennet B. Murdock, Jr., and Endel Tulving. Preparation of the paper was facilitated by grants provided by the Regents of the University of California, the National Institute of Mental Health (through the offices of Richard C. Stillman and Richard J. Wyatt), and the National Research Council of Canada (Grant A8632, awarded to Professor Tulving).
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Eich, J.E. The cue-dependent nature of state-dependent retrieval. Mem Cogn 8, 157–173 (1980). https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03213419
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03213419