Skip to main content
Download PDF

Guided Search 2.0 A revised model of visual search

Psychonomic Bulletin & Review volume 1, pages 202–238 (1994)Cite this article

Abstract

An important component of routine visual behavior is the ability to find one item in a visual world filled with other, distracting items. This ability to performvisual search has been the subject of a large body of research in the past 15 years. This paper reviews the visual search literature and presents a model of human search behavior. Built upon the work of Neisser, Treisman, Julesz, and others, the model distinguishes between a preattentive, massively parallel stage that processes information about basic visual features (color, motion, various depth cues, etc.) across large portions of the visual field and a subsequent limited-capacity stage that performs other, more complex operations (e.g., face recognition, reading, object identification) over a limited portion of the visual field. The spatial deployment of the limited-capacity process is under attentional control. The heart of the guided search model is the idea that attentional deployment of limited resources isguided by the output of the earlier parallel processes. Guided Search 2.0 (GS2) is a revision of the model in which virtually all aspects of the model have been made more explicit and/or revised in light of new data. The paper is organized into four parts: Part 1 presents the model and the details of its computer simulation. Part 2 reviews the visual search literature on preattentive processing of basic features and shows how the GS2 simulation reproduces those results. Part 3 reviews the literature on the attentional deployment of limited-capacity processes in conjunction and serial searches and shows how the simulation handles those conditions. Finally, Part 4 deals with shortcomings of the model and unresolved issues.

References

  • Adelson, E. H., &Bergen, J. R. (1991). The plenoptic function and the elements of early vision. In M. Landy & J. A. Movshon (Eds.),Computational models of visual processing (pp. 3–20). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ahissar, M., &Hochstein, S. (1992). Perceptual learning: Interactions between task and stimulus specificities.Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science,33, 1262. (Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Aks, D. J., &Enns, J. T. (1993). Early vision’s analysis of slant-from-texture.Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science,34, 1185. (Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Alkhateeb, W. F., Morris, R. J., &Ruddock, K. H. (1990). Effects of stimulus complexity on simple spatial discriminations.Spatial Vision,5, 129–141.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Allan, S. E., &Blough, D. S. (1989). Feature-based search asymmetries in pigeons and humans.Perception & Psychophysics,46, 456–464.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andersen, G. J. (1990). Focused attention in three-dimensional space.Perception & Psychophysics,47, 112–120.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andersen, G. J., &Kramer, A. F. (1993). Limits of focused attention in three-dimensional space.Perception & Psychophysics,53, 658–667.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andriesen, J. J., &Bouma, H. (1976). Eccentric vision: Adverse interactions between line segments.Vision Research,16, 71–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arguin, M., &Cavanagh, P. (1988). Parallel processing of two disjunctive targets.Perception & Psychophysics,44, 22–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ball, K. K., Beard, B. L., Roenker, D. L., Miller, R. L., &Griggs, D. S. (1988). Age and visual search: Expanding the useful field of view.Journal of the Optical Society of America A,5, 2210–2219.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ball, K. K., Owsley, C., Sloane, M. E., Roenker, D. L., &Bruni, J. R. (1993). Visual attention problems as a predictor of vehicle crashes among older drivers.Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science,34, 3110–3123.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ball, K. K., Roenker, D. L., &Bruni, J. R. (1990). Developmental changes in attention and visual search throughout adulthood. In J. T. Enns (Ed.),The development of attention: Research and theory (pp. 489–508). Amsterdam: Elsevier North-Holland.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baylis, G. C., &Driver, J. (1993). Visual attention and objects: Evidence for hierarchical coding of location.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,19, 451–470.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ben-Av, M. B., Sagi, D., &Braun, J. (1992). Visual attention and perceptual grouping.Perception & Psychophysics,52, 277–294.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bergen, J. R., &Adelson, E. H. (1988). Early vision and texture perception.Nature,333, 363–364.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bergen, J. R., &Julesz, B. (1983). Rapid discrimination of visual patterns.IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, & Cybernetics,SMC-13, 857–863.

    Google Scholar 

  • Biederman, I. (1987). Recognition-by-components: A theory of human image understanding.Psychological Review,94, 115–147.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blake, R. (1989). A neural theory of binocular rivalry.Psychological Review,96, 145–167.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bravo, M., &Blake, R. (1990). Preattentive vision and perceptual groups.Perception,19, 515–522.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bravo, M. J., &Nakayama, K. (1992). The role of attention in different visual-search tasks.Perception & Psychophysics,51, 465–472.

    Google Scholar 

  • Breese, B. B. (1909). Binocular rivalry.Psychological Review,16, 410–415.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, J. M., Enns, J. T., &Greene, H. (1993). Preattentive processing of line junctions can be altered by perceptual set.Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science,34, 1234. (Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, J. M., Weisstein, N., &May, J. G. (1992). Visual search for simple volumetric shapes.Perception & Psychophysics,51,40–48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bülthoff, H. H., &Blake, A. (1989). Does the seeing brain know physics?Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science,30, 262. (Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Bundesen, C. (1990). A theory of visual attention.Psychological Review,97, 523–547.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bundesen, C. (1991). Visual selection of features and objects: Is location special? A reinterpretation of Nissen’s (1985) findings.Perception & Psychophysics,50, 87–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bundesen, C., &Pedersen, L. F. (1983). Color segregation and visual search.Perception & Psychophysics,33, 487–493.

    Google Scholar 

  • Callaghan, T. C. (1984). Dimensional interaction of hue and brightness in preattentive field segregation.Perception & Psychophysics,36, 25–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carter, R. C. (1982). Visual search with color.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,8, 127–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cavanagh, P., Arguin, M., &Treisman, A. (1990). Effect of surface medium on visual search for orientation and size features.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,16, 479–492.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cave, K. R., &Pashler, H. (1994a).Visual selection mediated by location 1: Selecting successive visual objects. Manuscript submitted for publication.

  • Cave, K. R., &Pashler, H. (1994b).Visual selection mediated by location 2: Selecting noncontiguous locations. Manuscript submitted for publication.

  • Cave, K. R., &Wolfe, J. M. (1990). Modeling the role of parallel processing in visual search.Cognitive Psychology,22, 225–271.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cheal, M., &Lyon, D. (1989). Attention effects on form discrimination at different eccentricities.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,41A, 719–746.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheal, M., &Lyon, D. (1992). Attention in visual search: Multiple search classes.Perception & Psychophysics,52, 113–138.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chelazzi, L., Miller, E. K., Duncan, J., &Desimone, R. (1993). Neural basis for visual search in inferior temporal cortex.Nature,363, 345–347.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, I., &DeValois, R. L. (1993). Even and odd symmetric mechanisms are equally involved in texture discrimination.Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science,34, 1289. (Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen, L. (1982). Topological structure in visual perception.Science,218, 699–700.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, L. (1990). Holes and wholes: A reply to Rubin and Kanwisher.Perception & Psychophysics,47, 47–53.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chun, M. M., &Wolfe, J. M. (1994).Just say no: How are visual searches terminated when there is no target present? Manuscript submitted for publication.

  • Chun, M. M., Wolfe, J. M., &Friedman-Hill, S. R. (1992). Texture gradients group within but not across feature maps.Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science,33, 960. (Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, A. (1993). Asymmetries in visual search for conjunctive targets.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,19, 775–797.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, A., &Ivry, R. B. (1989). Illusory conjunction inside and outside the focus of attention.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,15, 650–663.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, A., &Ivry, R. B. (1991). Density effects in conjunction search: Evidence for a coarse location mechanism of feature integration.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,17, 891–901.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, A., &Rafal, R. D. (1991). Attention and feature integration: Illusory conjunctions in a patient with a parietal lobe lesion.Psychological Science,2, 106–110.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dehaene, S. (1989). Discriminability and dimensionality effects in visual search for featural conjunctions: A functional pop-out.Perception & Psychophysics,46, 72–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Desimone, R., Schein, S. J., Moran, J., &Ungerleider, L. G. (1985). Contour, color and shape analysis beyond the striate cortex.Vision Research,25, 441–452.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Desimone, R., &Ungerleider, L. G. (1989). Neural mechanisms of visual processing in monkeys. In F. Boiler & J. Grafman (Eds.),Handbook of neuropsychology (pp. 267–299). Amsterdam: Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dick, M. (1989).Parallel and serial processes in motion detection. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Weizmann Institute, Rehovot, Israel.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dick, M., Ullman, S., &Sagi, D. (1987). Parallel and serial processes in motion detection.Science,237, 400–402.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Downing, B. D., &Gossman, J. R. (1970). Parallel processing of multidimensional stimuli.Perception & Psychophysics,8, 57–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Driver, J., McLeod, P., &Dienes, Z. (1992a). Are direction and speed coded independently by the visual system? Evidence from visual search.Spatial Vision,6, 133–147.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Driver, J., McLeod, P., &Dienes, Z. (1992b). Motion coherence and conjunction search: Implications for guided search theory.Perception & Psychophysics,51, 79–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duncan, J. (1980). The locus of interference in the perception of simultaneous stimuli.Psychological Review,87, 272–300.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duncan, J. (1989). Boundary conditions on parallel processing in human vision.Perception,18, 457–469.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duncan, J., &Humphreys, G. W. (1989). Visual search and stimulus similarity.Psychological Review,96, 433–458.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duncan, J., &Humphreys, G. W. (1992). Beyond the search surface: Visual search and attentional engagement.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,18, 578–588.

    Google Scholar 

  • D’Zmura, M. (1991). Color in visual search.Vision Research,31, 951–966.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Efron, R., Yund, E. W., &Nichols, D. R. (1987). Scanning the visual field without eye movements: A sex difference.Neuropsychologia,25, 637–644.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Egeth, H. E., Jonides, J., &Wall, S. (1972). Parallel processing of multielement displays.Cognitive Psychology,3, 674–698.

    Google Scholar 

  • Egeth, H. E., Virzi, R. A., &Garbart, H. (1984). Searching for conjunctively defined targets.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,10, 32–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elder, J., &Zucker, S. (1993). The effect of contour closure on the rapid discrimination of two-dimensional shapes.Vision Research,33, 981–991.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Enns, J. T. (1992). Sensitivity of early human vision to 3-D orientation in line-drawings.Canadian Journal of Psychology,46, 143–169.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Enns, J. T., &Rensink, R. A. (1990a). Scene based properties influence visual search.Science,247, 721–723.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Enns, J. T., &Rensink, R. A. (1990b). Sensitivity to three-dimensional orientation in visual search.Psychological Science,1, 323–326.

    Google Scholar 

  • Enns, J. T., &Rensink, R. A. (1991). Preattentive recovery of three-dimensional orientation from line drawings.Psychological Review,98, 335–351.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Enns, J. T., &Rensink, R. A. (1992). An object completion process in early vision.Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science,33, 1263. (Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Epstein, W., &Babler, T. (1990). In search of depth.Perception & Psychophysics,48, 68–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eriksen, B. A., &Eriksen, C. W. (1974). Effects of noise letters upon the identification of a target letter in a nonsearch task.Perception & Psychophysics,16, 143–149.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fahle, M. (1990). Parallel, semi-parallel, and serial processing of visual hyperacuity.Human Vision & Electronic Imaging: Models, Methods, & Applications,1249, 147–159.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fahle, M. (1991a). A new elementary feature of vision.Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science,32, 2151–2155.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fahle, M. (1991b). Parallel perception of vernier offsets, curvature, and chevrons in humans.Vision Research,31, 2149–2184.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fang, S.-P., &Wu, P. (1989). Illusory conjunctions in the perception of Chinese characters.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,15, 434–447.

    Google Scholar 

  • Farah, M. (1992). Is an object an object an object? Cognitive and neuropsychological investigations of domain specificity in visual object recognition.Current Directions in Psychological Science,1, 165–169.

    Google Scholar 

  • Farmer, E. W., &Taylor, R. M. (1980). Visual search through color displays: Effects of target-background similarity and background uniformity.Perception & Psychophysics,27, 267–272.

    Google Scholar 

  • Folk, C. L., Remington, R. W., &Johnston, J. C. (1992). Involuntary covert orienting is contingent on attentional control settings.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,18, 1030–1044.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foster, D. H., &Ward, P. A. (1991a). Asymmetries in oriented-line detection indicate two orthogonal filters in early vision.Proceedings of the Royal Society London: Series B,243, 75–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foster, D. H., &Ward, P. A. (1991b). Horizontal-vertical filters in early vision predict anomalous line-orientation frequencies.Proceedings of the Royal Society London: Series B,243, 83–86.

    Google Scholar 

  • Francolini, C. M., &Egeth, H. E. (1979). Perceptual selectivity is task dependent: The pop-out effect poops out.Perception & Psychophysics,25, 99–110.

    Google Scholar 

  • Friedman-Hill, S. R., &Wolfe, J. M. (1992). Activation vs. inhibition in visual search.Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science,33, 1356. (Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Friedman-Hill, S. R., &Wolfe, J. M. (in press). Second-order parallel processing: Visual search for the odd item in a subset.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance.

  • Geisler, W. S. (1989). Sequential ideal-observer analysis of visual discriminations.Psychological Review,96, 267–314.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grabowecky, M., &Khurana, B. (1990). Features were meant to be integrated.Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science,31, 105. (Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Graham, N., Beck, J., &Sutter, A. (1992). Nonlinear processes in spatial-frequency channel models of perceived texture segregation: Effects of sign and amount of contrast.Vision Research,32, 719–743.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Graham, N., Sutter, A., Venkatesan, C., &Humaran, M. (1992). Non-linear processes in perceived region segregation: Orientation selectivity of complex channels.Ophthalmic & Physiological Optics,12, 142–146.

    Google Scholar 

  • Graves, M. A., Ball, K. K., Cissell, G. M., West, R. E., Whorley, K. D., &Edwards, J. D. (1993). Auditory distraction results in functional visual impairment for some older drivers.Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science,34, 1418. (Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Green, B. F., &Anderson, L. K. (1956). Color coding in a visual search task.Journal of Experimental Psychology,51, 19–24.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gurnsey, R., &Browse, R. A. (1989). Asymmetries in visual texture discrimination.Spatial Vision,4, 31–44.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gurnsey, R., Humphrey, G. K., &Kapitan, P. (1992). Parallel discrimination of subjective contours defined by offset gratings.Perception & Psychophysics,52, 263–276.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haenny, P. E., Maunsell, J. H. R., &Schiller, P. H. (1988). State dependent activity in monkey visual cortex: II. Visual and non-visual factors.Experimental Brain Research,69, 245–259.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haenny, P. E., &Schiller, P. H. (1988). State dependent activity in monkey visual cortex: I. Single cell activity in V1 and V4 on visual tasks.Experimental Brain Research,69, 225–244.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heathcote, A., &Mewhort, D. J. K. (1993). Representation and selection of relative position.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,19, 488–516.

    Google Scholar 

  • Helmholtz, H. von (1962).Treatise on physiological optics (Vol. 3; J. P. C. Southall, Trans.). New York: Dover. (Original work published 1866)

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, J. E. (1978). Search through a sequentially presented visual display.Perception & Psychophysics,23, 1–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, J. E. (1979). A two-stage model of visual search.Perception & Psychophysics,25, 319–327.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holliday, I. E., &Braddick, O. J. (1991). Pre-attentive detection of a target defined by stereoscopic slant.Perception,20, 355–362.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hubel, D. H., &Livingstone, M. S. (1987). Segregation of form, color, and stereopsis in primate area 18.Journal of Neuroscience,7, 3378–3415.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hummel, J. E., &Biederman, I. (1992). Dynamic binding in a neural network for shape recognition.Psychological Review,99, 480–517.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Humphreys, G. W., &Müller, H. (1993). Search via recursive rejection (SERR): A connectionist model of visual search.Cognitive Psychology,25, 43–110.

    Google Scholar 

  • Humphreys, G. W., Quinlan, P. T., &Riddoch, M. J. (1989). Grouping processes in visual search: Effects with single and combined-feature targets.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General,118, 258–279.

    Google Scholar 

  • Intraub, H. (1985). Visual dissociation: An illusory conjunction of pictures and forms.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,11, 431–442.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ivry, R. B., &Cohen, A. (1990). Dissociation of short- and long-range apparent motion in visual search.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,16, 317–331.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, W. A., Hawley, K. J., &Farnham, J. M. (1993). Novel popout: Empirical boundaries and tentative theory.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,19, 140–153.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jonides, J., &Gleitman, H. (1972). A conceptual category effect in visual search: O as letter or digit.Perception & Psychophysics,12, 457–460.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jonides, J., &Yantis, S. (1988). Uniqueness of abrupt visual onset in capturing attention.Perception & Psychophysics,43, 346–354.

    Google Scholar 

  • Julesz, B. (1984). A brief outline of the texton theory of human vision.Trends in Neuroscience,7, 41–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Julesz, B. (1986). Texton gradients: The texton theory revisited.Biological Cybernetics,54, 245–251.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Julesz, B., &Bergen, J. R. (1983). Textons, the fundamental elements in preattentive vision and perceptions of textures.Bell Systems Technical Journal,62, 1619–1646.

    Google Scholar 

  • Julesz, B., &Kröse, B. (1988). Features and spatial filters.Nature,333, 302–303.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kahneman, D., &Treisman, A. (1984). Changing views of attention and automaticity. In R. Parasuraman & D. R. Davies (Eds.),Varieties of attention (pp. 29–61). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kanwisher, N. (1991). Repetition blindness and illusory conjunctions: Errors in binding visual types with visual tokens.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,16, 30–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kanwisher, N., &Driver, J. (1992). Objects, attributes, and visual attention: Which, what, and where.Current Directions in Psychological Science,1, 26–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kanwisher, N., &Potter, M. C. (1989). Repetition blindness: The effects of stimulus modality and spatial displacement.Memory & Cognition,17, 117–124.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kanwisher, N., &Potter, M. C. (1990). Repetition blindness: Levels of processing.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,16, 30–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karni, A., &Sagi, D. (1990). Texture discrimination learning is specific for spatial location and background element orientation.Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science,31, 562. (Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Karni, A., &Sagi, D. (1992). Later but (almost) forever-The time course of learning of a visual skill.Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science,33, 1356. (Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Keeble, D. R., &Morgan, M. J. (1993). A linear systems approach to texture perception.Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science,34, 1237. (Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, P. L., Harrison, D. W., &Hodge, M. H. (1991). The category effect in visual selective attention.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society,29, 71–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kinchla, R. A. (1977). The role of structural redundancy in the perception of visual targets.Perception & Psychophysics,22, 19–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kinchla, R. A. (1992). Attention.Annual Review of Psychology,43, 711–742.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kinchla, R. A., &Wolfe, J. M. (1979). The order of visual processing: “Top-down,” “bottom-up,” or “middle-out.”Perception & Psychophysics,25, 225–231.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klein, R. (1988). Inhibitory tagging system facilitates visual search.Nature,334, 430–431.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Knierim, J. J., &Van Essen, D. C. (1992). Neuronal responses to static texture patterns in area V1 of the alert monkey.Journal of Neurophysiology,67, 961–980.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kröse, B. A. J., &Julesz, B. (1989). The control and speed of shifts of attention.Vision Research,29, 1607–1619.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kwak, H.-W., Dagenbach, D., &Egeth, H. [E.] (1991). Further evidence for a time-independent shift of the focus of attention.Perception & Psychophysics,49, 473–480.

    Google Scholar 

  • Landy, M. S., &Bergen, J. R. (1991). Texture segregation and orientation gradient.Vision Research,31, 679–691.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lennie, P., Trevarthen, C., Van Essen, D., &Wassle, H. (1990). Parallel processing of visual information. In L. Spillman & J. S. Werner (Eds.),Visual perception: The neurophysiological foundations (pp. 103–128). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Logothetis, N. K., &Charles, E. R. (1990). V4 responses to gratings defined by random dot motion.Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science,31, 90. (Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Luschow, A., &Nothdurft, H. C. (1993). Pop-out of orientation but not pop-out of motion at isoluminance.Vision Research,33, 91–104.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mach, E. (1959).The analysis of sensations (C. M. Williams, Trans.). New York: Dover. (Original work published 1886)

    Google Scholar 

  • Mackeben, M., &Nakayama, K. (1988). Fixation release facilitates rapid attentional shifts.Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science,29, 22. (Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Malik, J., &Perona, P. (1990). Preattentive texture discrimination with early vision mechanisms.Journal of the Optical Society of America A,7, 923–932.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maijkovic, V., &Nakayama, K. (1992). Color and position priming in the deployment of attention.Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science,33, 1354. (Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Marendaz, C., Stivalet, P., Barraclough, L., &Walkowiac, P. (1993). Effect of gravitoinertial cues on visual search for orientation.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,19, 1266–1277.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maunsell, J. H. R., Sclar, G., &Nealey, T. A. (1988). Task-specific signals in area V4 of monkey visual cortex.Society for Neuroscience Abstracts,14, 10.

    Google Scholar 

  • McLeod, P., Driver, J., &Crisp, J. (1988). Visual search for conjunctions of movement and form is parallel.Nature,332, 154–155.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McLeod, P., Driver, J., Dienes, Z., &Crisp, J. (1991). Filtering by movement in visual search.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,17, 55–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moraglia, G. (1989). Display organization and the detection of horizontal line segments.Perception & Psychophysics,45, 265–272.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moran, J., &Desimone, R. (1985). Selective attention gates visual processing in the extrastriate cortex.Science,229, 782–784.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mordkoff, J. T., &Yantis, S. (1993). Dividing attention between color and shape: Evidence of coactivation.Perception & Psychophysics,53, 357–366.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moser, M. C. (1991).The perception of multiple objects. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, Bradford Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nagy, A. L., &Sanchez, R. R. (1990). Critical color differences determined with a visual search task.Journal of the Optical Society of America A,7, 1209–1217.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nagy, A. L., Sanchez, R. R., &Hughes, T. C. (1990). Visual search for color differences with foveal and peripheral vision.Journal of the Optical Society of America A,7, 1995–2001.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nakayama, K. (1990). The iconic bottleneck and the tenuous link between early visual processing and perception. In C. Blakemore (Ed.),Vision: Coding and efficiency (pp. 411–422). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nakayama, K., &Silverman, G. H. (1986). Serial and parallel processing of visual feature conjunctions.Nature,320, 264–265.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Navon, D. (1977). Forest before trees: The precedence of global features in visual perception.Cognitive Psychology,9, 353–383.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neisser, U. (1967).Cognitive psychology. New York: Appleton, Century, Crofts.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nothdurft, H. C. (1990). Texture discrimination by cells in the cat lateral geniculate nucleus.Experimental Brain Research,82, 48–66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nothdurft, H. C. (1991a). Different effects from spatial frequency masking in texture segregation and texton detection tasks.Vision Research,31, 299–320.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nothdurft, H. C. (1991b). Texture segmentation and pop-out from orientation contrast.Vision Research,31, 1073–1078.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nothdurft, H. C. (1993a). Matching luminance pop-out with that of orientation or motion.Investigative Ophthalmology A Visual Science,34, 1054. (Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Nothdurft, H. C. (1993b). The role of features in preattentive vision: Comparison of orientation, motion and color cues.Vision Research,33, 1937–1958.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nothdurft, H. C., &Li, C. Y. (1984). Representation of spatial details in textured patterns by cells of the cat striate cortex.Experimental Brain Research,57, 9–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Connell, K. M., &Treisman, A. (1992).Shared orientation coding for lines, dot pairs, and edges. Manuscript submitted for publication.

  • O’Neill, P., Wolfe, J. M., &Bilsky, A. B. (1993). Individual differences in visual search.Investigative Ophthalmology A Visual Science,34, 1236. (Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Toole, A. J., &Walker, C. L. (1993). Disparity as a visual primitive: The competing role of surface percepts.Investigative Ophthalmology A Visual Science,34, 1187. (Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Pashler, H. (1987). Detecting conjunctions of color and form: Reassessing the serial search hypothesis.Perception A Psychophysics,41, 191–201.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pashler, H. (1988). Cross-dimensional interaction and texture segregation.Perception & Psychophysics,43, 307–318.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pavel, M., Econopouly, J., &Landy, M. S. (1992). The psychophysics of rapid visual search.Investigative Ophthalmology A Visual Science,33, 1355. (Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterhans, E., Von der Heydt, R., &Baumgartner, G. (1986). Neuronal responses to illusory contour stimuli reveal stages of visual cortical processing. In J. D. Pettigrew, K. J. Sanderson, & W. R. Levick (Eds.),Visual neuroscience (pp. 343–351). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poisson, M. E., &Wilkinson, F. (1992). Distractor ratio and grouping processes in visual conjunction search.Perception,21, 21–38.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pomerantz, J. R., &Pristach, E. A. (1989). Emergent features, attention, and perceptual glue in visual form perception.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception A Performance,15, 635–649.

    Google Scholar 

  • Posner, M. I., &Cohen, Y. (1984). Components of attention. In H. Bouma & D. G. Bowhuis (Eds.),Attention and performance X (pp. 55–66). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prinzmetal, W., &Keysar, B. (1989). Functional theory of illusory conjunctions and neon colors.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General,118, 165–190.

    Google Scholar 

  • Quinlan, P. T., &Humphreys, G. W. (1987). Visual search for targets defined by combinations of color, shape, and size: An examination of the task constraints on feature and conjunction searches.Perception & Psychophysics,41, 455–472.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rafal, R. D., Calabresi, P. A., Brennan, C. W., &Sciolto, T. K. (1989). Saccade preparation to recently attended locations.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception A Performance,15, 673–685.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ramachandran, V. S. (1988). Perception of shape from shading.Nature,331, 163–165.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ratcliff, R. (1978). A theory of memory retrieval.Psychological Review,85, 59–108.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rensink, R., &Cavanagh, P. (1993). Processing of shadows at preattentive levels.Investigative Ophthalmology A Visual Science,34, 1288. (Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Robertson, L. C., Egly, R., Lamb, M. R., &Kerth, L. (1993). Spatial attention and cuing to global and local levels of hierarchical structure.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception A Performance,19, 471–487.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robertson, L. C., &Lamb, M. R. (1991). Neuropsychological contributions to theories of part/whole organization.Cognitive Psychology,23, 299–330.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rock, I. (1974, January). The perception of disoriented figures.Scientific American, pp. 78–85.

  • Ross, W. D., Grossberg, S., &Mingolla, E. (1993). A neural model of visual search.Investigative Ophthalmology A Visual Science,34, 1235. (Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Rubenstein, B. S., &Sagi, D. (1990). Spatial variability as a limiting factor in texture discrimination tasks: Implications for performance asymmetries.Journal of the Optical Society of America A,7, 1632–1643.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rubin, J. M., &Kanwisher, N. (1985). Topological perception: Holes in an experiment.Perception A Psychophysics,37, 179–180.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sagi, D. (1988). The combination of spatial frequency and orientation is effortlessly perceived.Perception A Psychophysics,43, 601–603.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sagi, D. (1990). Detection of an orientation singularity in Gabor textures: Effect of signal density and spatial-frequency.Vision Research,30, 1377–1388.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sagi, D., &Julesz, B. (1985a). Fast noninertial shifts of attention.Spatial Vision,1, 141–149.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sagi, D., &Julesz, B. (1985b). “Where” and “what” in vision.Science,228, 1217–1219.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sandon, P. A., &Yanikoglu, B. A. (1990). Visual search as constraint propagation. InProceedings of the 12th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 574–581). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, W., &Shiffrin, R. M. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information processing: I. Detection, search, and attention.Psychological Review,84, 1–66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sekuler, R., &Ball, K. K. (1986). Visual localization: Age and practice.Journal of the Optical Society of America A,3, 864–868.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smallman, H. S., &Boynton, R. M. (1990). Segregation of basic color in an information display.Journal of the Optical Society of America A,7, 1985–1994.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, S. L. (1962). Color coding and visual search.Journal of Experimental Psychology,64, 434–440.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spitzer, H., Desimone, R., &Moran, J. (1988). Increased attention enhances both behavioral and neuronal performance.Science,240, 338–340.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sternberg, S. (1969). High-speed scanning in human memory.Science,153, 652–654.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stone, W., &Mack, A. (1993). Perception of grouping based on motion without attention.Investigative Ophthalmology A Visual Science,34, 1233. (Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Tadmor, Y., &Tolhurst, D. J. (1993). Both the phase and the amplitude spectrum may determine the appearance of natural images.Vision Research,33, 141–145.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S., &Badcock, D. (1988). Processing feature density in preat-tentive perception.Perception A Psychophysics,44, 551–562.

    Google Scholar 

  • Theeuwes, J. (1991). Cross-dimensional perceptual selectivity.Perception A Psychophysics,50, 184–193.

    Google Scholar 

  • Theeuwes, J. (1992). Perceptual selectivity for color and form.Perception & Psychophysics,51, 599–606.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, J. P., &Gille, J. (1979). Bandwidths of orientation channels in human vision.Journal of the Optical Society of America,69, 652–660.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tipper, S. P., &Bayus, S. C. (1987). Individual difference in selective attention: The relation of priming and interference to cognitive failure.Personality A Individual Differences,8, 667–675.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tipper, S. P., Brehaut, J. C., &Driver, J. (1990). Selection of moving and static objects for the control of spatially directed attention.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,16, 492–504.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tipper, S. P., Driver, J., &Weaver, B. (1991). Object centered inhibition of return of visual attention.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,43A, 289–298.

    Google Scholar 

  • Townsend, J. T. (1971). A note on the identifiability of parallel and serial processes.Perception A Psychophysics,10, 161–163.

    Google Scholar 

  • Townsend, J. T. (1976). Serial and within-stage independent parallel model equivalence on the minimum completion time.Journal of Mathematical Psychology,14, 219–239.

    Google Scholar 

  • Townsend, J. T. (1990). Serial and parallel processing: Sometimes they look like Tweedledum and Tweedledee but they can (and should) be distinguished.Psychological Science,1, 46–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Treisman, A. (1985). Preattentive processing in vision.Computer Vision, Graphics, & Image Processing,31, 156–177.

    Google Scholar 

  • Treisman, A. (1986a, May). Features and objects in visual processing.Scientific American, pp. 114B–125.

  • Treisman, A. (1986b). Properties, parts, and objects. In K. R. Boff, L. Kaufmann, & J. P. Thomas (Eds.),Handbook of human perception and performance (pp. 35.1–35.70). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Treisman, A. (1988). Features and objects: The 14th Bartlett Memorial Lecture.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,40A, 201–237.

    Google Scholar 

  • Treisman, A., &Gelade, G. (1980). A feature-integration theory of attention.Cognitive Psychology,12, 97–136.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Treisman, A., &Gormican, S. (1988). Feature analysis in early vision: Evidence from search asymmetries.Psychological Review,95, 15–48.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Treisman, A., &Sato, S. (1990). Conjunction search revisited.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,16, 459–478.

    Google Scholar 

  • Treisman, A., &Schmidt, H. (1982). Illusory conjunctions in the perception of objects.Cognitive Psychology,14, 107–141.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Treisman, A., &Souther, J. (1986). Illusory words: The roles of attention and of top-down constraints in conjoining letters to form words.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,12, 3–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Treisman, A., Vieira, A., &Hayes, A. (1992). Automaticity and preattentive processing.American Journal of Psychology,105, 341–362.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tsotsos, J. K. (1990). Analyzing vision at the complexity level.Behavioral & Brain Sciences,13, 423–469.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Essen, D. C., &Maunsell, J. H. R. (1983). Hierarchical organization and functional streams in the visual cortex.Trends in Neuroscience,6, 370–375.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vieira, A., &Treisman, A. (1988, November).Automatic search: Changing perceptions or procedures? Paper presented at the meeting of the Psychonomic Society, Chicago.

  • Virzi, R. A., &Egeth, H. E. (1984). Is meaning implicated in illusory contours?Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,10, 573–580.

    Google Scholar 

  • Von der Heydt, R., &Dursteler, M. R. (1993). Visual search: Monkeys detect conjunctions as fast as features.Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science,34, 1288. (Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Von der Heydt, R., Peterhans, E., &Baumgartner, G. (1984). Illusory contours and cortical neuron responses.Science,224, 1260–1262.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Voorhees, H., &Poggio, T. (1988). Computing texture boundaries from images.Nature,333, 364–367.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Q., &Cavanagh, P. (1993). Acquired familiarity effects in visual search with Chinese characters.Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science,34, 1236. (Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Q., Cavanagh, P., &Green, M. (1992). Familiarity and pop-out in visual search.Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science,33, 1262. (Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Ward, R., &McClelland, J. L. (1989). Conjunctive search for one and two identical targets.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,15, 664–672.

    Google Scholar 

  • White, J. M., Levi, D. M., &Aitsebaomo, A. P. (1992). Spatial localization without visual references.Vision Research,32, 513–526.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, H. R. (1986). Responses of spatial mechanisms can explain hyperacuity.Vision Research,26, 453–469.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, H. R., Levi, D., Maffei, L., Rovamo, J., &De Valois, R. (1990). The perception of form: Retina to striate cortex. In L. Spillman & J. S. Werner (Eds.),Visual perception: The neurophysiological foundations (pp. 231–272). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe, J. M. (1986). Stereopsis and binocular rivalry.Psychological Review,93, 269–282.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe, J. M. (1992). “Effortless” texture segmentation and “parallel” visual search are nor the same thing.Vision Research,32, 757–763.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe, J. M. (1994). Visual search in continuous, naturalistic stimuli.Vision Research,34, 1187–1195.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe, J. M., &Bose, M. (1991).Visual search for the “medium” stimulus. Unpublished research report. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

  • Wolfe, J. M., &Cave, K. R. (1989). Deploying visual attention: The guided search model. In T. Troscianko & A. Blake (Eds.),AI and the eye (pp. 79–103). Chichester, U.K.: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe, J. M., Cave, K. R., &Franzel, S. L. (1989). Guided search: An alternative to the feature integration model for visual search.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,15, 419–433.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe, J. M., Chun, M. M., &Friedman-Hill, S. R. (1993). Making use of texton gradients: Visual search and texton grouping exploit the same parallel processes in different ways.Spatial Vision,7, 90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe, J. M.,Chun, M. M., &Friedman-Hill, S. R. (in press). Making use of texton gradients: Visual search and perceptual grouping exploit the same parallel processes in different ways. In T. Papathomas & A. Gorea (Eds.),Unking psychophysics, neurophysiology, and computational vision: A volume in honor of Beta Julesz.

  • Wolfe, J. M., &Franzel, S. L. (1988). Binocularity and visual search.Perception & Psychophysics,44, 81–93.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe, J. M., &Friedman-Hill, S. R. (1990, November).Must we attend to every abrupt onset? Paper presented at the meeting of the Psychonomic Society, New Orleans.

  • Wolfe, J. M., &Friedman-Hill, S. R. (1992a). On the role of symmetry in visual search.Psychological Science,3, 194–198.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe, J. M., &Friedman-Hill, S. R. (1992b). Visual search for orientation: The role of angular relations between targets and distrac-tors.Spatial Vision,6, 199–208.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe, J. M., Friedman-Hill, S. R., &Bilsky, A. B. (1994). Parallel processing of part-whole information in visual search tasks.Perception & Psychophysics,55, 537–550.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe, J. M., Friedman-Hill, S. R., Stewart, M. I., &O’Con-nell, K. M. (1992). The role of categorization in visual search for orientation.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,18, 34–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe, J. M., &Pokorny, C. W. (1990). Inhibitory tagging in visual search: A failure to replicate.Perception & Psychophysics,48, 357–362.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe, J. M., Yee, A., &Friedman-Hill, S. R. (1992). Curvature is a basic feature for visual search.Perception,21, 465–480.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe, J. M.,Yu, K. P.,Pruszenski, A. D., &Cave, K. R. (1988, November).A preattentive feature process can execute only one command at a time. Paper presented at the meeting of the Psychonomic Society, Chicago.

  • Wolfe, J. M., Yu, K. P., Stewart, M. I., Shorter, A. D., Friedman-Hill, S. R., &Cave, K. R. (1990). Limitations on the parallel guidance of visual search: Color X color and orientation x orientation conjunctions.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,16, 879–892.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yantis, S. (1993). Stimulus-driven attentional capture.Current Directions in Psychological Science,2, 156–161.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yantis, S., &Johnson, D. N. (1990). Mechanisms of attentional priority.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,16, 812–825.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yantis, S., &Jones, E. (1991). Mechanisms of attentional selection: Temporally modulated priority tags.Perception & Psychophysics,50, 166–178.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yantis, S., &Jonides, J. (1990). Abrupt visual onsets and selective attention: Voluntary versus automatic allocation.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,16, 121–134.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yund, E. W., Efron, R., &Nichols, D. R. (1990). Detectability gradients as a function of target location.Brain & Cognition,12, 1–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zeki, S. M. (1978). Uniformity and diversity of structure and function in Rhesus monkey prestriate visual cortex.Journal of Physiology,277, 273–290.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zeki, S. M., Watson, J. D. G., Lueck, C. J., Friston, K. J., Ken-nard, C., &Frackowiak, R. S. J. (1991). A direct demonstration of functional specialization in human visual cortex.Journal of Neuroscience,11, 641–649.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, W., Chen, L., &Zhang, X. (1992). Topological perception: Holes in illusory conjunction and visual search.Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science,33, 958. (Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, W., Zhang, X., &Chen, L. (1993). Shape transformation in illusory conjunctions.Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science,34, 1082. (Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Zohary, E., &Hochstein, S. (1989). How serial is serial processing in vision?Perception,18, 191–200.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Affiliations

  1. Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts

    Jeremy M. Wolfe

  2. Brigham & Women’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts

    Jeremy M. Wolfe

Authors
  1. Jeremy M. Wolfe
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jeremy M. Wolfe.

Additional information

I thank Stacia Friedman-Hill and Alexander Bilsky for work on all aspects of this project. Ideas presented here were improved by conversations with Marvin Chun, Anne Treisman, Kyle Cave, and Nancy Kanwisher. I thank Asher Cohen, Patricia O’Neill, Alexander Bilsky, Greg Gancarz, Christoph Nothdurft, Jim Pomerantz, and two anonymous reviewers for comments on various drafts of this paper. This research is supported by NIH-NEI Grant RO1-EY05087 and by AFOSR Grant F49620-93-1-0407).

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Wolfe, J.M. Guided Search 2.0 A revised model of visual search. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 1, 202–238 (1994). https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03200774

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03200774

Keywords

  • Visual Search
  • Search Task
  • Target Trial
  • Serial Search
  • Search Asymmetry