Abstract
Recent studies have suggested a theoretical distinction between active elaboration and passive storage in visuospatial working memory, but research with older adults has failed to demonstrate a differential preservation of these two abilities. The results are controversial, and the investigation of the active component has been inhibited by the absence of any appropriate experimental procedures. A new task was developed involving the mental reconstruction of pictures of objects from fragmented pieces, and this provides a useful procedure for exploring active visuospatial processing. Significant differences in terms of both correctness and response latency were obtained between young and older adults and between younger old and older old adults. Performance also varied with visual complexity, mental rotation, and processing load. It is concluded that this ecologically relevant procedure constitutes a very powerful, sensitive, and reliable tool for identifying individual differences in visuospatial working memory.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
References
Baddeley, A. D. (1986).Working memory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Baddeley, A. D., &Hitch, G. J. (1974). Workingmemory. In G. H. Bower (Ed.),The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory (Vol.8, pp. 47–90). New York: Academic Press.
Baltes, P. B., & Baltes, M. M. (Eds.) (1990).Successful aging. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Berch, D. B., Krikorian, R., &Huha, E. M. (1998). The Corsi block-tapping task: Methodological and theoretical considerations.Brain & Cognition,38, 317–338.
Caplan, P. J., Crawford, M., Hyde, J. S., &Richardson, J. T. E. (1997).Gender differences in human cognition. New York: Oxford University Press.
Carpenter, P. A., &Just, M. A. (1989). The role of working memory in language comprehension. In D. Klahr & K. Kotovsky (Eds.),Complex information processing: The impact of Herbert A. Simon (pp. 31–68). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Cattell, R. B. (1966). The scree test for the number of factors.Multi-variate Behavioral Research,1, 245–276.
Corballis, M. C., &Beale, I. L. (1976).The psychology of left and right. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Cornoldi, C., Bertuccelli, B., Rocchi, P., &Sbrana, B. (1993). Processing capacity limitations in pictorial and spatial representations in the totally congenitally blind.Cortex,29, 675–689.
Cornoldi, C., Cortes, A., &Preti, D. (1991). Individual differences in the capacity limitations of visuospatial short-term memory: Research on sighted and totally congenitally blind people.Memory & Cognition,19, 459–468.
Cornoldi, C., Rgoni, F., Venneri, A., &Vecchi, T. (2000). Passive and active processes in visuo-spatial memory: Double dissociation in developmental learning abilities.Brain & Cognition,43, 117–120.
Cornoldi, C., &Vecchi, T. (2000). Mental imagery in blind people: The role of passive and active visuo-spatial processes. In M. Heller (Ed.),Touch, representation, and blindness (pp. 143–181). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Corsi, P. M. (1972).Human memory and the medial temporal region of the brain. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, McGill University, Montreal.
Craik, F. I. M., & Salthouse, T. A. (Eds.) (1992).The handbook of aging and cognition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Cremer, R., &Zeef, E. J. (1987). What kind of noise increases with age?Journal of Gerontology,42, 515–518.
Daneman, M., &Carpenter, P. A. (1980). Individual differences in working memory and reading.Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior,19, 450–466.
De Beni, R., Palladino, P., Pazzaglia, F., &Cornoldi, C. (1998). Increases in intrusion errors and working memory deficit of poor comprehenders.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology A,51, 305–320.
Della Sala, S., Gray, C., Baddeley, A. D., &Wilson, B. (1997).Visual pattern test. Bury St. Edmunds, U.K.: Thames Valley Test Co.
Dunnett, C. W. (1955). A multiple comparison procedure for comparing several treatments with a control.Journal of the American Statistical Association,50, 1096–1121.
Farah, M. J., Hammond, K. M., Levine, D. N., &Calvanio, R. (1988). Visual and spatial mental imagery: Dissociable systems of representation.Cognitive Psychology,20, 439–462.
Frazier, L., &Hoyer, W. J. (1992). Object recognition by componentfeatures: Are there age differences?Experimental Aging Research,18, 9–14.
Gollin, E. S. (1960). Developmental studies of visual recognition of incomplete objects.Perceptual & Motor Skills,11, 289–298.
Harshman, R. A., Hampson, E., &Berenbaum, S. A. (1983). Individual differences in cognitive abilities, Part 1: Sex and handedness differences in ability.Canadian Journal of Psychology,37, 144–192.
Harshman, R. A., &Paivio, A. (1987). “ Paradoxical” sex differences in self-reported imagery.Canadian Journal of Psychology,41, 287–302.
Healy, W., &Fernald, G. M. (1911). Tests for practical mental classification.Psychological Monographs,13(2, Whole No. 54), 1–53.
Helstrup, T. (1989). Active and passive memory: States, attitudes, and strategies.Scandinavian Journal of Psychology,30, 113–133.
Hitch, G. J., Woodin, M. E., &Baker, S. (1989). Visual and phonological components of working memory in children.Memory & Cognition,17, 175–185.
Hooper, H. E. (1958).The Hooper visual organization test: Manual. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.
Kerr, N. H. (1983). The role of vision in “visual imagery” experiments: Evidence from the congenitally blind.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General,112, 265–277.
Kosslyn, S. M. (1980).Image and mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Kosslyn, S. M., Margolis, J. A., Barrett, A. M., Goldknopf, E. J., &Caly, P. F. (1990). Age differences in imagery abilities.Child Development,61, 995–1010.
Logie, R. H. (1995).Visuospatial working memory. Hove, U.K.: Erlbaum.
Logie, R.H.,& Marchetti, C. (1991). Visuospatialworking memory: Visual, spatial or central executive. In R. H. Logie & M. Denis (Eds.),Mental images in human cognition (pp. 105–115). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Logie, R. H., &Pearson, D. G. (1997). The inner eye and the inner scribe of visuospatial working memory: Evidence from developmental fractionation.European Journal of Cognitive Psychology,9, 241–257.
Luzzatti, C., Vecchi, T., Agazzi, D., Cesa-Bianchi, M., &Vergani, C. (1998). A neurological dissociation between visual and spatial processing in mental imagery.Cortex,34, 461–469.
Maccoby, E.E., &Jacklin, C.N. (1974).The psychology of sex differences. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Marmor, G, &Zaback, L. (1976). Mental rotation by the blind: Does mental rotation depend on visual imagery?Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance,2, 515–521.
Mayr, U., &Kliegl, R. (1993). Sequential and coordinative complexity: Age-based processing limitations in figural transformations.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,19, 1297–1320.
Mayr, U., Kliegl, R., &Krampe, R. T. (1996). Sequential and coordinative processing dynamics in figural transformations across the life span.Cognition,59, 61–90.
Milner, B. (1971). Interhemispheric differences in the localization of psychological processes in man.British Medical Bulletin,27, 272–277.
Morris, R. G., Gick, M. L., &Craik, F. I. M. (1988). Processing resources and age differences in working memory.Memory & Cognition,16, 362–366.
Paivio, A., &Clark, J. M. (1991). Static versus dynamic imagery. In C. Cornoldi & M. A. McDaniel (Eds.),Imagery and cognition (pp. 221–245). New York: Springer-Verlag.
Paivio, A., &Harshman, R. A. (1983). Factor analysis of a questionnaire on imagery and verbal habits and skills.Canadian Journal of Psychology,37, 461–483.
Pedhazur, E. J., &Schmelkin, L. P. (1991).Measurement, design, and analysis: An integrated approach. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Poltrock, S. E., &Brown, P. (1984). Individual differences in visual imagery and spatial ability.Intelligence,8, 93–138.
Roberts, R. J., &Aman, C. J. (1993). Developmental differences in giving directions: Spatial frames of reference and mental rotation.Child Development,64, 1258–1270.
Salthouse, T. A. (1991).Theoretical perspectives on cognitive aging. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Salthouse, T. A. (1992). Reasoning and spatial abilities. In F. I. M. Craik & T. A. Salthouse (Eds.),The handbook of aging and cognition (pp. 167–211). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Salthouse, T. A. (1994a). The aging of working memory.Neuropsychology,8, 535–543.
Salthouse, T. A. (1994b). The nature of the influence of speed on adult age differences in memory.Developmental Psychology,30, 240–259.
Salthouse, T. A. (1996). General and specific speed mediation of adult age differences in memory.Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Science B,51, 30–42.
Salthouse, T. A., Babcock, R. L., &Shaw, R. J. (1991). Effects of adult age on structural and operational capacities in working memory.Psychology & Aging,6, 118–127.
Salthouse, T. A., Babcock, R. L., Skovronek, E., Mitchell, D. R. D., &Palmon, R. (1990). Age and experience effects in spatial visualization.Developmental Psychology,26, 1228–1236.
Salthouse, T. A., &Coon, E. J. (1993). Influence of task-specific processing speed on age differences in memory.Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Science,48, 245–255.
Salthouse, T. A., &Mitchell, D. R. D. (1989). Structural and operational capacities in integrative spatial ability.Psychology & Aging,4, 18–25.
Salthouse, T. A., &Prill, K. A. (1988). Effects of aging on perceptual closure.American Journal of Psychology,101, 217–238.
Shah, P., &Miyake, A. (1996). The separability of working memory resources for spatial thinking and language processing: An individual differences approach.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General,125, 4–27.
Smith, E. E., &Jonides, J. (1999). Storage and executive processes in the frontal lobes.Science,283, 1657–1661.
Smyth, M.M., &Pelky, PL. (1992). Short-term retention of spatial information.British Journal of Psychology,83, 359–374.
Smyth, M. M., &Scholey, K. A. (1994). Interference in immediate spatial memory.Memory & Cognition,22, 1–13.
Snodgrass, J. G., &Vanderwart, M. (1980). A standardized set of 260 pictures: Norms for name agreement, image agreement, familiarity, and visual complexity.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning & Memory,6, 174–215.
Spinnler, H., & Tognoni, G. (Eds.) (1987). Standardizzazione e taratura italiana di test neuropsicologici [Italian standardization of new psychological tests].Italian Journal of Neurological Science (Suppl. 8).
Swanson, H. L. (1996). Individual and age-related differences in children’s working memory.Memory & Cognition,24, 70–82.
Vecchi, T., (1998). Visuospatial limitations in congenitally totally blind people.Memory,6, 91–102.
Vecchi, T., &Cornoldi, C. (1999). Passive storage and active manipulation in visuo-spatial working memory: Further evidence from the study of age differences.European Journal of Cognitive Psychology,11, 391–406.
Vecchi, T., &Girelli, L. (1998). Gender differences in visuospatial processing: The importance of distinguishing between passive storage and active manipulation.Acta Psychologica,99, 1–16.
Vecchi, T., Monticelli, M. L., &Cornoldi, C. (1995). Visuospatial working memory: Structures and variables affecting a capacity measure.Neuropsychologia,33, 1549–1564.
Vecchi, T., &Rchardson, J. T. E. (2000). Active processing in visuospatial working memory.Cahiers de Psychologie Cognitive,19, 3–32.
Vecchi, T., &Rchardson, J. T. E. (2001). Measures of visuospatial short-term memory: The Knox cube imitation test and the Corsi blocks test compared.Brain & Cognition,46, 91–94.
Wechsler, D. (1981).Wechsler adult intelligent scale-Revised. New York: Psychological Corp.
Winer, B. J., Brown, D. R., &Michels, K. M. (1991).Statistical principles in experimental design (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
The research reported in this paper was begun while TV was a visiting research fellow at Brunei University. The authors’ subsequent collaboration was facilitated by a biomedical research collaboration grant from the Wellcome Trust (048699/Z/96).
Electronic supplementary material
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Richardson, J.T.E., Vecchi, T. A jigsaw-puzzle imagery task for assessing active visuospatial processes in old and young people. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers 34, 69–82 (2002). https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03195425
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03195425