Abstract
We report four experiments in which a remember-know paradigm was combined with a response deadline procedure in order to assess memory awareness in fast, as compared with slow, recognition judgments. In the experiments, we also investigated the perceptual effects of study-test congruence, either for picture size or for speaker’s voice, following either full or divided attention at study. These perceptual effects occurred in remembering with full attention and in knowing with divided attention, but they were uninfluenced by recognition speed, indicating that their occurrence in remembering or knowing depends more on conscious resources at encoding than on those at retrieval. The results have implications for theoretical accounts of remembering and knowing that assume that remembering is more consciously controlled and effortful, whereas knowing is more automatic and faster.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
Reference
Anderson, N. D. (2001). The attentional demands and attentional control of encoding and retrieval. In M. Naveh-Benjamin, M. Moscovitch, & H. L. Roediger III (Eds.),Perspectives on human memory and cognitive aging: Essays in honour of Fergus Craik (pp. 208–225). New York: Psychology Press.
Balota, D. A., Burgess, G. C., Cortese, M. J., &Adams, D. R. (2002). The word-frequency mirror effect in young, old, and early-stage Alzheimer’s disease: Evidence for two processes in episodic recognition performance.Journal of Memory & Language,46, 199–226.
Boldini, A., Russo, R., &Avons, S. E. (2004). One process is not enough! A speed-accuracy tradeoff study of recognition memory.Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,11, 353–361.
Conway, M. A., Dewhurst, S. A., Pearson, N., &Sapute, A. (2001). The self and recollection reconsidered: How a “failure to replicate” failed and why trace strength accounts of recollection are untenable.Applied Cognitive Psychology,15, 673–686.
Curran, T. (2000). Brain potentials of recollection and familiarity.Memory & Cognition, 28, 923–938.
Curran, T., &Cleary, A. M. (2003). Using ERPs to dissociate recollection from familiarity in picture recognition.Cognitive Brain Research,15, 191–205.
Dewhurst, S. A., &Conway, M. A. (1994). Pictures, images, and recollective experience.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,20, 1088–1098.
Dewhurst, S. A., Holmes, S. J., Brandt, K. R., &Dean, G. M. (2006). Measuring the speed of the conscious components of recognition memory: Remembering is faster than knowing.Consciousness & Cognition,15, 147–162.
Donaldson, W. (1996). The role of decision processes in remembering and knowing.Memory & Cognition,24, 523–533.
Dunn, J. C. (2004). Remember-know: A matter of confidence. {Psychological Review},111, 524–542.
Eldridge, L. L., Sarfatti, S., &Knowlton, B. J. (2002). The effect of testing procedure on remember-know judgments.Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,9, 139–145.
Gallo, D. A., Donaldson, D. I., & Dolan, P. O. (2002, November).Waiting for recollection, fast recollection, or illusory recollection: What do response latencies tell us? Paper presented at the 43rd Annual Meeting of the Psychonomic Society, Kansas City.
Gardiner, J. M. (1988). Functional aspects of recollective experience.Memory & Cognition,16, 309–313.
Gardiner, J. M., &Conway, M. A. (1999). Levels of awareness and varieties of experience. In B. H. Challis & B. M. Velichkovsky (Eds.),Stratification in cognition and consciousness (pp. 237–254). Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Gardiner, J. M., Gregg, V. H., Mashru, R., &Thaman, M. (2001). Impact of encoding depth on awareness of perceptual effects in recognition memory.Memory & Cognition,29, 433–440.
Gardiner, J. M., &Java, R. I. (1990). Recollective experience in word and nonword recognition.Memory & Cognition, 18, 23–30.
Gardiner, J. M., Konstantinou, I., Karayianni, I., &Gregg, V. H. (2005). Memory awareness following speeded compared with unspeeded picture recognition.Experimental Psychology,52, 140–149.
Gardiner, J. M., &Parkin, A. J. (1990). Attention and recollective experience in recognition memory.Memory & Cognition,18, 579–583.
Gardiner, J. M., Ramponi, C., &Richardson-Klavehn, A. (1999). Response deadline and subjective awareness in recognition memory.Consciousness & Cognition,8, 484–496.
Gardiner, J. M., Ramponi, C., &Richardson-Klavehn, A. (2002). Recognition memory and decision processes: A meta-analysis of remember, know, and guess responses. Memory, 10, 83–98.
Gardiner, J. M., &Richardson-Klavehn, A. (2000). Remembering and knowing. In E. Tulving & F. I. M. Craik (Eds.),Handbook of memory (pp. 229–244). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Gregg, V. H., Gardiner, J. M., Karayianni, I., &Konstantinou, I. (2006). Recognition memory and awareness: A high-frequency advantage in the accuracy of knowing.Memory,14, 265–275.
Hicks, J. L., &Marsh, R. L. (1999). Remember-know judgments can depend on how memory is tested.Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,6, 117–122.
Higham, P. A., &Vokey, J. R. (2004). Illusory recollection and dualprocess models of recognition memory.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,57A, 714–744.
Hirshman, E., Fisher, J., Henthorn, T., Arndt, J., &Passannante, A. (2002). Midazolam amnesia and dual-process models of the wordfrequency mirror effect.Journal of Memory & Language,47, 499–516.
Hirshman, E., &Lanning, K. (1999). Is there a special association between self judgments and conscious recollection?Applied Cognitive Psychology,13, 29–42.
Hirshman, E., &Master, S. (1997). Modeling the conscious correlates of recognition memory: Reflections on the remember-know paradigm.Memory & Cognition,25, 345–351.
Inoue, C., &Bellezza, F. S. (1998). The detection model of recognition using know and remember judgments.Memory & Cognition,26, 299–308.
Jacoby, L. L. (1991). A process dissociation framework: Separating automatic from intentional uses of memory.Journal of Memory & Language,30, 513–541.
Jacoby, L. L., Jones, T. C., &Dolan, P. O. (1998). Two effects of repetition: Support for a dual-process model of know judgments and exclusion errors.Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,5, 705–709.
Jacoby, L. L., Yonelinas, A. P., &Jennings, J. M. (1997). The relation between conscious and unconscious (automatic) influences: A declaration of independence. In J. D. Cohen & J. W. Schooler (Eds.),Scientific approaches to consciousness (pp. 13–47). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Joordens, S., &Hockley, W. E. (2000). Recollection and familiarity through the looking glass: When old does not mirror new. {Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition},26, 1534–1555.
Karayianni, I., & Gardiner, J. M. (2003). Transferring voice effects in recognition memory from remembering to knowing. Memory & Cognition, 31, 1052–1059.
Konstantinou, I., &Gardiner, J. M. (2005). Conscious control and memory awareness when recognising famous faces.Memory, {db13}, 449–457.
Kučera, H., &Francis, W. N. (1967).Computational analysis of presentday American English. Providence, RI: Brown University Press.
Levine, B., Freedman, M., Dawson, D., Black, S., &Stuss, D. T. (1999). Ventral frontal contribution to self-regulation: Convergence of episodic memory and inhibition.Neurocase,5, 263–275.
Macmillan, N. A., Rotello, C. M., &Verde, M. F. (2005). On the importance of models in interpreting remember-know experiments: Comments on Gardiner et al.’s (2002) meta-analysis.Memory,13, 83–98.
Mandler, G. A. (1980). Recognizing: The judgment of previous occurrence.Psychological Review,87, 252–271.
Mangels, J. A., Picton, T. W., &Craik, F. I. M. (2001). Attention and successful episodic encoding: An event-related potential study.Cognitive Brain Research,11, 77–95.
Parkin, A. J., Gardiner, J. M., & Rosser, R. (1995). Functional aspects of face recognition.Consciousness & Cognition,4, 387–398.
Rajaram, S. (1993). Remembering and knowing: Two means of access to the personal past.Memory & Cognition,21, 89–102.
Rajaram, S. (1996). Perceptual effects on remembering: Recollective processes in picture recognition memory.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,22, 365–377.
Rajaram, S. (1999). Assessing the nature of retrieval experience: Advances and challenges. In B. H. Challis & B. M. Velichkovsky (Eds.),Stratification in cognition and consciousness (pp. 255–275). Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Rajaram, S., &Geraci, L. (2000). Conceptual fluency selectively influences knowing.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,26, 1070–1074.
Richardson-Klavehn, A., &Gardiner, J. M. (1996). Cross-modality priming in stem completion reflects conscious memory, but not voluntary memory.Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,3, 238–244.
Richardson-Klavehn, A., Gardiner, J. M., &Java, R. I. (1996). Memory: Task dissociations, process dissociations, and dissociations of consciousness. In G. D. M. Underwood (Ed.),Implicit cognition (pp. 85–155). Oxford: Oxford University Press
Richardson-Klavehn, A., Gardiner, J. M., &Ramponi, C. (2002). Level of processing and the process-dissociation procedure: Elusiveness of null effects on estimates of automatic retrieval.Memory,10, 349–364.
Rotello, C. M., Macmillan, N. A., &Reeder, J. A. (2004). Sum-difference theory of remembering and knowing: A two-dimensional detection theory model.Psychological Review,111, 588–616.
Rugg, M. D., Schloerscheidt, A. M., &Mark, R. E. (1998). An electrophysiological comparison of two indices of recollection.Journal of Memory & Language,39, 47–69.
Snodgrass, J. G., &Vanderwart, M. (1980). A standardized list of 260 pictures: Norms for name agreement, image agreement, familiarity, and visual complexity.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning & Memory,6, 174–215.
Toth, J. P. (1996). Conceptual automaticity in recognition memory: Levels-of-processing effects on familiarity.Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology,50, 123–138.
Tulving, E. (1983).Elements of episodic memory. Oxford: Oxford University Press, Clarendon Press.
Tulving, E. (1985). Memory and consciousness.Canadian Psychology,26, 1–12.
Tulving, E. (1993). Varieties of consciousness and levels of awareness in memory. In A. Baddeley & L. Weiskrantz (Eds.),Attention: Selection, awareness, and control. A tribute to Donald Broadbent (pp. 283–299). Oxford: Oxford University Press, Clarendon Press.
Tulving, E. (1995). Organization of memory: Quo vadis? In M. S. Gazzaniga (Ed.),The cognitive neurosciences (pp. 839–847). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Tulving, E. (2002). Episodic memory: From mind to brain.Annual Review of Psychology,53, 1–25.
Tulving, E. (2005). Episodic memory and autonoesis: Uniquely human? In H. S. Terrace & J. Metcalfe (Eds.),The missing link in cognition: Origins of self-reflective consciousness (pp. 3–56). New York: Oxford University Press.
Van Petten, C., Coulson, S., Rubin, S., Plante, E., &Parks, M. (1999). Time course of word identification and semantic integration in spoken language.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,25, 394–417.
Wixted, J. T., &Stretch, V. (2004). In defense of the signal detection interpretation of remember/know judgments.Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,11, 616–641.
Yonelinas, A. P. (2002). The nature of recollection and familiarity: A review of 30 years of research.Journal of Memory & Language,46, 441–517.
Yonelinas, A. P., &Jacoby, L. L. (1995). The relation between remembering and knowing as bases for recognition: Effects of size congruency.Journal of Memory & Language,34, 622–643.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
This research was supported by Grant 000220015 from the ESRC, and we are grateful for their support,
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Gardiner, J.M., Gregg, V.H. & Karayianni, I. Recognition memory and awareness: Occurrence of perceptual effects in remembering or in knowing depends on conscious resources at encoding, but not at retrieval. Memory & Cognition 34, 227–239 (2006). https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193401
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193401