Abstract
Short-duration sprints (<10 seconds), interspersed with brief recoveries (<60 seconds), are common during most team and racket sports. Therefore, the ability to recover and to reproduce performance in subsequent sprints is probably an important fitness requirement of athletes engaged in these disciplines, and has been termed repeated-sprint ability (RSA). This review (Part I) examines how fatigue manifests during repeated-sprint exercise (RSE), and discusses the potential underpinning muscular and neural mechanisms. A subsequent companion review to this article will explain a better understanding of the training interventions that could eventually improve RSA.
Using laboratory and field-based protocols, performance analyses have consistently shown that fatigue during RSE typically manifests as a decline in maximal/mean sprint speed (i.e. running) or a decrease in peak power or total work (i.e. cycling) over sprint repetitions. A consistent result among these studies is that performance decrements (i.e. fatigue) during successive bouts are inversely correlated to initial sprint performance. To date, there is no doubt that the details of the task (e.g. changes in the nature of the work/recovery bouts) alter the time course/magnitude of fatigue development during RSE (i.e. task dependency) and potentially the contribution of the underlying mechanisms.
At the muscle level, limitations in energy supply, which include energy available from phosphocreatine hydrolysis, anaerobic glycolysis and oxidative metabolism, and the intramuscular accumulation of metabolic by-products, such as hydrogen ions, emerge as key factors responsible for fatigue. Although not as extensively studied, the use of surface electromyography techniques has revealed that failure to fully activate the contracting musculature and/or changes in inter-muscle recruitment strategies (i.e. neural factors) are also associated with fatigue outcomes. Pending confirmatory research, other factors such as stiffness regulation, hypoglycaemia, muscle damage and hostile environments (e.g. heat, hypoxia) are also likely to compromise fatigue resistance during repeated-sprint protocols.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Bangsbo J, Norregaard L, Thorso F. Activity profile of competition soccer. Can J Sport Sci 1991; 16: 110–6
Cabello Manrique D, Gonzalez-Badillo JJ. Analysis of the characteristics of competitive badminton. Br J Sports Med 2003; 37: 62–6
Faude O, Meyer T, Rosenberger F, et al. Physiological characteristics of badminton match play. Eur J Appl Physiol 2007; 100: 479–85
Girard O, Millet GP. Neuromuscular fatigue in racquet sports. Neurol Clin 2008; 26: 181–94
Glaister M. Multiple sprint work: physiological responses, mechanisms of fatigue and the influence of aerobic fitness. Sports Med 2005; 35: 757–77
Spencer M, Bishop D, Dawson B, et al. Physiological and metabolic responses of repeated-sprint activities:specificto field-based team sports. Sports Med 2005; 35: 1025–44
Bishop D, Spencer M, Duffield R, et al. The validity of a repeated sprint ability test. J Sci Med Sport 2001; 4: 19–29
Fitzsimons M, Dawson B, Ward D, et al. Cycling and running tests of repeated sprint ability. Aus J Sci Med Sport 1993; 25: 82–7
Spencer M, Lawrence S, Rechichi C, et al. Time-motion analysis of elite field hockey, with special reference to repeated-sprint activity. J Sports Sci 2004; 22: 843–50
Spencer M, Rechichi C, Lawrence S, et al. Time-motion analysis of elite field hockey during several games in succession:a tournament scenario. J Sci Med Sport 2005; 8: 382–91
Stolen T, Chamari K, Castagna C, et al. Physiology of soccer: an update. Sports Med 2005; 35: 501–36
Buchheit M, Mendez-Villanueva A, Simpson BM, et al. Repeated-sprint sequences during youth soccer matches. Int J Sports Med 2010; 31: 709–16
Ball D, Burrows C, Sargeant AJ. Human power output during repeated sprint cycle exercise: the influence of thermalstress. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1999; 79: 360–6
Bogdanis GC, Nevill ME, Boobis LH, et al. Contribution of phosphocreatine and aerobic metabolism to energysupply during repeated sprint exercise. J Appl Physiol 1996; 80: 876–84
Bogdanis GC, Nevill ME, Boobis LH, et al. Recovery of power output and muscle metabolites following 30 s ofmaximal sprint cycling in man. J Physiol 1995; 482 (Pt2): 467–80
Balsom PD, Seger JY, Sjodin B, et al. Maximal-intensity intermittent exercise: effect of recovery duration. Int JSports Med 1992; 13: 528–33
Duffield R, King M, Skein M. Recovery of voluntary and evoked muscle performance following intermittent-sprintexercise in the heat. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2009; 4: 254–68
Balsom PD, Seger JY, Sjodin B, et al. Physiological responses to maximal intensity intermittent exercise. EurJ Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1992; 65: 144–9
Bishop D, Claudius B. Effects of induced metabolic alkalosis on prolonged intermittent-sprint performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2005; 37: 759–67
Bishop D, Edge J, Davis C, et al. Induced metabolic alkalosis affects muscle metabolism and repeated-sprint ability. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2004; 36: 807–13
Mendez-Villanueva A, Hamer P, Bishop D. Fatigue in repeated- sprint exercise is related to muscle power factorsand reduced neuromuscular activity. Eur J Appl Physiol 2008; 103: 411–9
Gaitanos GC, Williams C, Boobis LH, et al. Human muscle metabolism during intermittent maximal exercise. J Appl Physiol 1993; 75: 712–9
Balsom PD, Gaitanos GC, Söderlund K, et al. Highintensity exercise and muscle glycogen availability in humans. Acta Physiol Scand 1999; 165: 337–45
Hautier CA, Arsac LM, Deghdegh K, et al. Influence of fatigue on EMG/force ratio and cocontraction in cycling. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32: 839–43
Yquel RJ, Arsac LM, Thiaudie`re E, et al. Effect of creatine supplementation on phosphocreatine resynthesis, inorganicphosphate accumulation and pH during intermittentmaximal exercise. J Sports Sci 2002; 20: 427–37
Bishop D, Edge J, Goodman C. Muscle buffer capacity and aerobic fitness are associated with repeated-sprint abilityin women. Eur J Appl Physiol 2004; 92: 540–7
Racinais S, Bishop D, Denis R, et al. Muscle deoxygenation and neural drive to the muscle during repeated sprintcycling. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2007; 39: 268–74
Buchheit M, Laursen PB, Ahmaidi S. Parasympathetic reactivation after repeated sprint exercise. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2007; 293: H133–41
Smith KJ, Billaut F. Influence of cerebral and muscle oxygenation on repeated-sprint ability. Eur J Appl Physiol 2010; 109: 989–99
Lippi M. UEFA Newsletter for coaches. 2007; 4–7 [online]. Available from URL: http://www.uefa.com/newsfiles/493216.pdf [Accessed 2011 Jun 17]
Rampinini E, Bishop D, Marcora SM, et al. Validity of simple field tests as indicators of match-related physicalperformance in top-level professional soccer players. IntJ Sports Med 2007; 28: 228–35
Krustrup P, Zebis M, Jensen JM, et al. Game-induced fatigue patterns in elite female soccer. J Strength Cond Res 2010; 24: 437–41
Mohr M, Krustrup P, Bangsbo J. Match performance of high-standard soccer players with special reference to developmentof fatigue. J Sports Sci 2003; 21: 519–28
Krustrup P, Mohr M, Ellingsgaard H, et al. Physical demands during an elite female soccer game: importance oftraining status. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2005; 37: 1242–8
Trapattoni G. Coaching high performance soccer. Spring City (PA): Reedswain Inc., 1999
Paton CD, Hopkins WG, Vollebregt L. Little effect of caffeine ingestion on repeated sprints in team-sport athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001; 33: 822–5
Mohr M, Krustrup P, Nybo L, et al. Muscle temperature and sprint performance during soccer matches: beneficialeffect of re-warm-up at half-time. Scand. J Med Sci Sports 2004; 14: 156–62
Krustrup P, Mohr M, Steensberg A, et al. Muscle and blood metabolites during a soccer game: implications forsprint performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2006; 38: 1165–74
Enoka RM, Stuart DG. Neurobiology of muscle fatigue. J Appl Physiol 1992; 72: 1631–48
Bishop D, Girard O and. Repeated sprint ability. Part II: recommendations for training. Sports Med. In press
Racinais S, Connes P, Bishop D, et al. Morning versus evening power output and repeated-sprint ability. Chronobiol Int 2005; 22: 1029–39
Spencer M, Fitzsimons M, Dawson B, et al. Reliability of a repeated-sprint test for field-hockey. J Sci Med Sport 2006; 9: 181–4
Glaister M, Howatson G, Pattison JR, et al. The reliability and validity of fatigue measures during multiple — sprintwork: an issue revisited. J Strength Cond Res 2008; 22: 1597–601
Pyne DB, Saunders PU, Montgomery PG, et al. Relationships between repeated sprint testing, speed, and endurance. J Strength Cond Res 2008; 22: 1633–7
Mohr M, Krustrup P, Nielsen JJ, et al. Effect of two different intense training regimens on skeletal muscle iontransport proteins and fatigue development. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2007; 292: R1594–602
Racinais S, Perrey S, Denis R, et al. Maximal power, but not fatigability, is greater during repeated sprints performedin the afternoon. Chronobiol Int 2010; 27: 855–64
Bishop D, Lawrence S, Spencer M. Predictors of repeatedsprint ability in elite female hockey players. J Sci Med Sport 2003; 6: 199–209
Hamilton AL, Nevill ME, Brooks S, et al. Physiological responses to maximal intermittent exercise: differencesbetween endurance-trained runners and games players. J Sports Sci 1991; 9: 371–82
Yanagiya T, Kanehisa H, Kouzaki M, et al. Effect of gender on mechanical power output during repeated bouts ofmaximal running in trained teenagers. Int J Sports Med 2003; 24: 304–10
Mendez-Villanueva A, Hamer P, Bishop D. Fatigue responses during repeated sprints matched for initial mechanicaloutput. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2007; 39: 2219–25
Bishop D, Edge J. Determinants of repeated-sprint ability in females matched for single-sprint performance. EurJ Appl Physiol 2006; 97: 373–9
Falgairette G, Billaut F, Giacomoni M, et al. Effect of inertia on performance and fatigue pattern during repeatedcycle sprints in males and females. Int J Sports Med 2004; 25: 235–40
Matsuura R, Arimitsu T, Yunoki T, et al. Effects of resistive load on performance and surface EMG activityduring repeated cycling sprints on a non-isokinetic cycleergometer. Br J Sports Med. Epub 2010 Dec 14
Little T, Williams AG. Effects of sprint duration and exercise: rest ratio on repeated sprint performance andphysiological responses in professional soccer players. J Strength Cond Res 2007; 21: 646–8
Buchheit M, Cormie P, Abbiss CR, et al. Muscle deoxygenation during repeated sprint running: Effect ofactive vs. passive recovery. Int J Sports Med 2009; 30: 418–25
Castagna C, Abt G, Manzi V, et al. Effect of recovery mode on repeated sprint ability in young basketball players. J Strength Cond Res 2008; 22: 923–9
Hamlin MJ. The effect of contrast temperature water therapy on repeated sprint performance. J Sci Med Sport 2007; 10: 398–402
Spencer M, Bishop D, Dawson B, et al. Metabolism and performance in repeated cycle sprints: active versus passiverecovery. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2006; 38: 1492–9
Billaut F, Basset FA. Effect of different recovery patterns on repeated-sprint ability and neuromuscular responses. J Sports Sci 2007; 25: 905–13
Glaister M, Stone MH, Stewart AM, et al. The influence of recovery duration on multiple sprint cycling performance. J Strength Cond Res 2005; 19: 831–7
Glaister M, Witmer C, Clarke DW, et al. Familiarization, reliability, and evaluation of a multiple sprint running testusing self-selected recovery periods. J Strength Cond Res 2010; 24 (12): 3296–301
Holmyard DJ, Cheetham ME, Lakomy HK, et al. Effect of recovery duration on performance during multipletreadmill sprints. In: Reilly T, Lees A, Davids K, et al., editors. Science and football. London: F & N Spon, 1988: 134–42
Ratel S, Bedu M, Hennegrave A, et al. Effects of age and recovery duration on peak power output during repeatedcycling sprints. Int J Sports Med 2002; 23: 397–402
Ratel S, Williams CA, Oliver J, et al. Effects of age and recovery duration on performance during multiple treadmillsprints. Int J Sports Med 2006; 27: 1–8
Spencer M, Dawson B, Goodman C, et al. Performance and metabolism in repeated sprint exercise: effect of recoveryintensity. Eur J Appl Physiol 2008; 103: 545–52
Signorile JF, Ingalls C, Tremblay LM. The effects of active and passive recovery on short-term, high intensity poweroutput. Can J Appl Physiol 1993; 18: 31–42
Jougla A, Micallef JP, Mottet D. Effects of active vs. passive recovery on repeated rugby-specific exercises. J Sci Med Sport 2010; 13: 350–5
Sim AY, Dawson BT, Guelfi KJ, et al. Effects of static stretching in warm-up on repeated sprint performance. J Strength Cond Res 2009; 23: 2155–62
Wong PL, Lau PW, Mao de W, et al. Three days of static stretching within a warm-up does not affect repeatedsprintability in youth soccer players. J Strength Cond Res 2011; 25 (3): 838–45
Meckel Y, Gottlieb R, Eliakim A. Repeated sprint tests in young basketball players at different game stages. Eur JAppl Physiol 2009; 107: 273–9
Glaister M. Multiple-sprint work: methodological, physiological, and experimental issues. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2009; 3: 107–12
Billaut F, Smith K. Sex alters impact of repeated bouts of sprint exercise on neuromuscular activity in trained athletes. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2009; 34: 689–99
Billaut F, Bishop D. Muscle fatigue in males and females during multiple-sprint exercise. Sports Med 2009; 39: 257–78
Abrantes C, Macas V, Sampaio J. Variation in football player’s sprint test performance across different ages andlevels of competition. J Sports Sci Med 2004; 3: 44–9
Mujika I, Spencer M, Santisteban J, et al. Age-related differences in repeated-sprint ability in highly trained youthfootball players. J Sports Sci 2009; 27: 1581–90
Aziz AR, Mukherjee S, Chia MY, et al. Validity of the running repeated sprint ability test among playing positionsand level of competitiveness in trained soccer players. Int J Sports Med 2008; 29: 833–8
Rampinini E, Sassi A, Morelli A, et al. Repeated-sprint ability in professional and amateur soccer players. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2009; 34: 1048–54
Connes P, Racinais S, Sra F, et al. Does the pattern of repeated sprint ability differ between sickle cell trait carriersand healthy subjects. Int J Sports Med 2006; 27: 937–42
Giacomoni M, Billaut F, Falgairette G. Effects of the time of day on repeated all-out cycle performance and shorttermrecovery patterns. Int J Sports Med 2006; 27: 468–74
Fraser SF, Li JL, Carey MF, et al. Fatigue depresses maximal in vitro skeletal muscle Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase activityin untrained and trained individuals. J Appl Physiol 2002; 93: 1650–9
Clausen T, Nielsen OB, Harrison AP, et al. The Na+,K+ pump and muscle excitability. Acta Physiol Scand 1998; 162: 183–90
Juel C, Pilegaard H, Nielsen JJ, et al. Interstitial K(+) in human skeletal muscle during and after dynamic gradedexercise determined by microdialysis. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2000; 278: R400–6
Ruff RL, Simoncini L, Stuhmer W. Slow sodium channel inactivation in mammalian muscle: a possible role in regulatingexcitability. Muscle Nerve 1988; 11: 502–10
Fuglevand AJ, Zackowski KM, Huey KA, et al. Impairment of neuromuscular propagation during human fatiguingcontractions at submaximal forces. J Physiol 1993; 460: 549–72
Perrey S, Racinais S, Saimouaa K, et al. Neural and muscular adjustments following repeated running sprints. Eur J Appl Physiol 2010; 109: 1027–36
Hultman E, Sjoholm H. Energy metabolism and contraction force of human skeletal muscle in situ during electricalstimulation. J Physiol 1983; 345: 525–32
Dawson B, Goodman C, Lawrence S, et al. Muscle phosphocreatine repletion following single and repeated shortsprint efforts. Scand J Med Sci Sports 1997; 7: 206–13
Tomlin DL, Wenger HA. The relationship between aerobic fitness and recovery from high intensity intermittent exercise. Sports Med 2001; 31: 1–11
Soderlund K, Hultman E. ATP and phosphocreatine changes in single human muscle fibers after intense electricalstimulation. Am J Physiol 1991; 261: E737–41
Karatzaferi C, de Haan A, van Mechelen W, et al. Metabolismchanges in single human fibres during brief maximalexercise. Exp Physiol 2001; 86: 411–5
Sahlin K, Ren JM. Relationship of contraction capacity to metabolic changes during recovery from a fatiguing contraction. J Appl Physiol 1989; 67: 648–54
Yoshida T, Watari H. 31 P-nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy study of the time course of energy metabolism during exercise and recovery. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1993; 66: 494–9
Gaul CA, Docherty D, Wolski LA. The relationship between aerobic fitness and intermittent high intensityanaerobic performance in active females [abstract]. CanJ Appl Physiol 1997; 22 Suppl.: 19P
Boobis L, Williams C, Wootton SA. Human muscle metabolism during brief maximal exercise [abstract]. J Physiol 1982; 338: 21–2P
McGawley K, Bishop D. Anaerobic and aerobic contribution to two, 5 — 6-s repeated-sprint bouts. Coach Sport Sci J 2008; 3: 52
Parolin ML, Chesley A, Matsos MP, et al. Regulation of skeletal muscle glycogen phosphorylase and PDH during maximalintermittent exercise. Am J Physiol 1999; 277: E890–900
Dupont G, Millet GP, Guinhouya C, et al. Relationship between oxygen uptake kinetics and performance in repeatedrunning sprints. Eur J Appl Physiol 2005; 95: 27–34
Edge J, Bishop D, Goodman C, et al. Effects of high- and moderate-intensity training on metabolism and repeatedsprints. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2005; 37: 1975–82
Balsom PD, Ekblom B, Sjodin B. Enhanced oxygen availability during high intensity intermittent exercise decreasesanaerobic metabolite concentrations in blood. Acta Physiol Scand 1994; 150: 455–6
Bishop D, Spencer M. Determinants of repeated-sprint ability in well-trained team-sport athletes and endurancetrainedathletes. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2004; 44: 1–7
Brown PI, Hughes MG, Tong RJ. Relationship between VO(2max) and repeated sprint ability using non-motorisedtreadmill ergometry. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2007; 47: 186–90
Dawson B, Fitzsimons M, Ward D. The relationship of repeated sprinting ability to aerobic power and performancemeasures of anaerobic capacity and power. Aus JSci Med Sport 1993; 25: 88–93
Aziz AR, Mukherjee S, Chia MY, et al. Relationship between measured maximal oxygen uptake and aerobic enduranceperformance with running repeated sprint ability in youngelite soccer players. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2007; 47: 401–7
Castagna C, Manzi V, D’Ottavio S, et al. Relation between maximal aerobic power and the ability to repeat sprints inyoung basketball players. J Strength Cond Res 2007; 21: 1172–6
Lane KN, Wenger HA, Blair C. Relationship between maximal aerobic power and the ability to recover fromrepeated, high intensity, on ice sprints in male ice hockeyplayers [abstract]. Can. J Appl Physiol 1997; 22: 35
McMahon S, Wenger HA. The relationship between aerobic fitness and both power output and subsequent recoveryduring maximal intermittent exercise. J Sci Med Sport 1998; 1: 219–27
Wadley G, Le Rossignol P. The relationship between repeated sprint ability and the aerobic and anaerobic energysystems. J Sci Med Sport 1998; 1: 100–10
Aziz AR, Chia M, Teh KC. The relationship between maximal oxygen uptake and repeated sprint performanceindices in field hockey and soccer players. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2000; 40: 195–200
Bassett Jr DR, Howley ET. Limiting factors for maximum oxygen uptake and determinants of endurance performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32: 70–84
Thomas C, Sirvent P, Perrey S, et al. Relationships between maximal muscle oxidative capacity and blood lactate removalafter supramaximal exercise and fatigue indexes inhumans. J Appl Physiol 2004; 97: 2132–8
Billaut F, Smith K. Prolonged repeated-sprint ability is related to arterial O2 desaturation in men. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2010; 5: 197–209
Dupont G, McCall A, Prieur F, et al. Faster oxygen uptake kinetics during recovery is related to better repeatedsprinting ability. Eur J Appl Physiol 2010; 110 (3): 627–34
da Silva JF, Guglielmo LG, Bishop D. Relationship between different measures of aerobic fitness and repeatedsprintability in elite soccer players. J Strength Cond Res 2010; 24: 2115–21
Buchheit M, Ufland P. Effect of endurance training on performance and muscle reoxygenation rate during repeatedsprintrunning. Eur J Appl Physiol 2011; 111 (2): 293–301
Spriet LL, Lindinger MI, McKelvie RS, et al. Muscle glycogenolysis and H+ concentration during maximal intermittentcycling. J Appl Physiol 1989; 66: 8–13
Thomas C, Perrey S, Lambert K, et al. Monocarboxylate transporters, blood lactate removal after supramaximalexercise, and fatigue indexes in humans. J Appl Physiol 2005; 98: 804–9
Matsuura R, Arimitsu T, Kimura T, et al. Effect of oral administration of sodium bicarbonate on surface EMG activity during repeated cycling sprints. Eur J Appl Physiol 2007; 101: 409–17
Gaitanos GC, Nevill ME, Brooks S, et al. Repeated bouts of sprint running after induced alkalosis. J Sports Sci 1991; 9: 355–70
Vollestad NK. Measurement of human muscle fatigue. J Neurosci Methods 1997; 74: 219–27
Dutka TL, Lamb GD. Effect of low cytoplasmic [ATP] on excitation-contraction coupling in fast-twitch muscle fibresof the rat. J Physiol 2004; 560: 451–68
Westerblad H, Allen DG, Lannergren J. Muscle fatigue: lactic acid or inorganic phosphate the major cause? News Physiol Sci 2002; 17: 17–21
Ross A, Leveritt M, Riek S. Neural influences on sprint running: training adaptations and acute responses. Sports Med 2001; 31: 409–25
Billaut F, Basset FA, Falgairette G. Muscle coordination changes during intermittent cycling sprints. Neurosci Lett 2005; 380: 265–9
Billaut F, Basset FA, Giacomoni M, et al. Effect of highintensity intermittent cycling sprints on neuromuscularactivity. Int J Sports Med 2006; 27: 25–30
Matsuura R, Ogata H, Yunoki T, et al. Effect of blood lactate concentration and the level of oxygen uptake immediatelybefore a cycling sprint on neuromuscular activationduring repeated cycling sprints. J Physiol Anthropol 2006; 25: 267–73
Farina D, Merletti R, Enoka RM. The extraction of neural strategies from the surface EMG. J Appl Physiol 2004; 96: 1486–95
Pasquet B, Carpentier A, Duchateau J, et al. Muscle fatigue during concentric and eccentric contractions. Muscle Nerve 2000; 23: 1727–35
Kinugasa R, Akima H, Ota A, et al. Short-term creatine supplementation does not improve muscle activation orsprint performance in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol 2004; 91: 230–7
Missenard O, Mottet D, Perrey S. Factors responsible for force steadiness impairment with fatigue. Muscle Nerve 2009; 40: 1019–32
Kibler WB, Safran MR. Musculoskeletal injuries in the young tennis player. Clin. Sports Med 2000; 19: 781–92
Amann M, Dempsey JA. Locomotor muscle fatigue modifies central motor drive in healthy humans and imposesa limitation to exercise performance. J Physiol 2008; 586: 161–73
Sinoway LI, Hill JM, Pickar JG, et al. Effects of contraction and lactic acid on the discharge of group III muscleafferents in cats. J Neurophysiol 1993; 69: 1053–9
Duchateau J, Balestra C, Carpentier A, et al. Reflex regulation during sustained and intermittent submaximalcontractions in humans. J Physiol 2002; 541: 959–67
Racinais S, Girard O, Micallef JP, et al. Failed excitability of spinal motoneurons induced by prolonged runningexercise. J Neurophysiol 2007; 97: 596–603
Hunter AM, St Clair Gibson, Lambert MI, et al. Effects of supramaximal exercise on the electromyographic signal. Br J Sports Med 2003; 37: 296–9
Bundle MW, Ernst CL, Bellizzi MJ, et al. Ametabolic basis for impaired muscle force production and neuromuscularcompensation during sprint cycling. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2006; 291: R1457–64
Szubski C, Burtscher M, Loscher WN. The effects of shortterm hypoxia on motor cortex excitability and neuromuscularactivation. J Appl Physiol 2006; 101: 1673–7
Dillon GH, Waldrop TG. In vitro responses of caudal hypothalamic neurons to hypoxia and hypercapnia. Neuroscience 1992; 51: 941–50
Zehr PE. Considerations for use of the Hoffmann reflex in exercise studies. Eur J Appl Physiol 2002; 86: 455–68
Gandevia SC. Spinal and supraspinal factors in human muscle fatigue. Physiol Rev 2001; 81: 1725–89
Meeusen R, Watson P, Hasegawa H, et al. Central fatigue: the serotonin hypothesis and beyond. Sports Med 2006; 36: 881–909
Kalmar JM, Cafarelli E. Central excitability does not limit postfatigue voluntary activation of quadriceps femoris. J Appl Physiol 2006; 100: 1757–64
Sidhu SK, Bentley DJ, Carroll TJ. Locomotor exercise induces long-lasting impairments in the capacity of thehuman motor cortex to voluntarily activate knee extensormuscles. J Appl Physiol 2009; 106: 556–65
Gandevia SC, Petersen N, Butler JE, et al. Impaired response of human motoneurones to corticospinal stimulationafter voluntary exercise. J Physiol 1999; 521 (Pt3): 749–59
Petersen NT, Taylor JL, Butler JE, et al. Depression of activity in the corticospinal pathway during human motorbehavior after strong voluntary contractions. J Neurosci 2003; 23: 7974–80
Bigland-Ritchie B, Johansson R, Lippold OC, et al. Contractile speed and EMG changes during fatigue of sustainedmaximal voluntary contractions. J Neurophysiol 1983; 50: 313–24
Bigland-Ritchie B, Woods JJ. Changes in muscle contractile properties and neural control during humanmuscular fatigue. Muscle Nerve 1984; 7: 691–9
Allen DG, Lamb GD, Westerblad H. Impaired calcium release during fatigue. J Appl Physiol 2008; 104: 296–305
Casey A, Constantin-Teodosiu D, Howell S, et al. Metabolic response of type I and II muscle fibers during repeated bouts of maximal exercise in humans. Am. J Physiol 1996; 271: E38–43
Wilson GJ, Murphy AJ. The use of isometric tests of muscular function in athletic assessment. Sports Med 1996; 22: 19–37
Farley CT, Blickhan R, Saito J, et al. Hopping frequency in humans: a test of how springs set stride frequency inbouncing gaits. J Appl Physiol 1991; 71: 2127–32
Chelly SM, Denis C. Leg power and hopping stiffness: relationship with sprint running performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001; 33: 326–33
Morin JB, Jeannin T, Chevallier B, et al. Spring-mass model characteristics during sprint running: correlationwith performance and fatigue-induced changes. Int JSports Med 2006; 27: 158–65
Girard O, Micallef J-P, Millet GP. Changes in spring-mass model characteristics during repeated running sprints. Eur J Appl Physiol 2011; 111 (1): 125–34
Clark RA. The effect of training status on inter-limb joint stiffness regulation during repeated maximal sprints. J Sci Med Sport 2009; 12: 406–10
Morris JG, Nevill ME, Williams C. Physiological and metabolic responses of female games and endurance athletesto prolonged, intermittent, high-intensity running at 30degrees and 16 degrees C ambient temperatures. Eur JAppl Physiol 2000; 81: 84–92
Brosnan MJ, Martin DT, Hahn AG, et al. Impaired interval exercise responses in elite female cyclists at moderatesimulated altitude. J Appl Physiol 2000; 89: 1819–24
Ogawa T, Hayashi K, Ichinose M, et al. Metabolic response during intermittent graded sprint running inmoderatehypobaric hypoxia in competitive middle-distance runners. Eur J Appl Physiol 2007; 99: 39–46
Gray SR, De Vito G, Nimmo MA, et al. Skeletal muscle ATP turnover and muscle fiber conduction velocity areelevated at higher muscle temperatures during maximalpower output development in humans. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2006; 290: R376–82
Bishop D, Maxwell NS. Effects of active warm up on thermoregulation and intermittent-sprint performance inhot conditions. J Sci Med Sport 2009; 12: 196–204
Drust B, Rasmussen P, Mohr M, et al. Elevations in core and muscle temperature impairs repeated sprint performance. Acta Physiol Scand 2005; 183: 181–90
Maxwell NS, McKenzie RW, Bishop D. Influence of hypohydration on intermittent sprint performance in theheat. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2009; 4: 54–67
Balsom PD, Gaitanos GC, Ekblom B, et al. Reduced oxygen availability during high intensity intermittent exercise impairsperformance. Acta Physiol Scand 1994; 152: 279–85
Hogan MC, Richardson RS, Haseler LJ. Human muscle performance and PCr hydrolysis with varied inspiredoxygen fractions: a 31P-MRS study. J Appl Physiol 1999; 86: 1367–73
Amann M, Kayser B. Nervous system function during exercise in hypoxia. High Alt Med Biol 2009; 10: 149–64
Acknowledgements
No sources of funding were used to assist in the preparation of this review. The authors have no conflicts of interest that are directly relevant to the content of this review.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Girard, O., Mendez-Villanueva, A. & Bishop, D. Repeated-Sprint Ability — Part I. Sports Med 41, 673–694 (2011). https://doi.org/10.2165/11590550-000000000-00000
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/11590550-000000000-00000