Abstract
Although acute asthma is a very common cause of emergency department visits in children, there is as yet insufficient evidence for the establishment of a standardized treatment protocol. The aim of this review is to describe updated information on the management of asthma exacerbations in the pediatric emergency department.
Oxygen is the first-line treatment of acute asthma exacerbations in the emergency department to control hypoxemia. It is accompanied by the administration of β2-adrenoceptor agonists followed by corticosteroids. β2-Adrenoceptor agonists have traditionally been administered by nebulization, although spacers have recently been introduced and proven, in many cases, to be as effective as nebulization.
Oral prednisolone, with its reliability, simplicity, convenience and low cost, should remain the treatment of choice for the most severe asthma exacerbations, when the lung airways are extremely contracted and filled with secretions. Recently, several studies have shown that high-dose inhaled corticosteroids are at least as effective as oral corticosteroids in controlling moderate to severe asthma attacks in children and therefore should be considered an alternative treatment to oral corticosteroids in moderate to severe asthma attacks.
Studies of other drugs have shown that ipratropium bromide may be given only in addition to β2-adrenoceptor agonists; theophylline has no additional benefit, and magnesium sulfate has no clear advantage.
Comprehensive asthma management should also include asthma education, measures to prevent asthma triggers, and training in the use of inhalers and spacers. Proper management will avoid most asthma attacks and reduce admission and readmission to emergency departments.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
Use of trademarks is for identification purposes only and does not imply endorsement.
References
Anderson HR. Increase in hospital admission for childhood asthma, trends in referral, severity, and re-admission from 1970 to 1985 in a health region of the United Kingdom. Thorax 1989; 44: 614–9
Burt CW, Knapp DE. Ambulatory care visits for asthma: United States, 1993–94. Adv Data 1996; 27(277): 1
Emerman CL, Cydulka RK, Crain EF, et al. Prospective multicenter study of relapse after treatment for acute asthma among children presenting to the emergency department. J Pediatr 2001; 138(3): 318–24
Emerman CL. Relapse following treatment of acute asthma in the emergency department. J Asthma 2000; 37(8): 701–8
Lebowitz MD. The use of peak expiratory flow rate measurements in respiratory disease. Pediatr Pulmonol 1991; 11(2): 166–74
Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA). Pocket guide for asthma management and prevention. Bethesda (MD): National Institutes of Health, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, 1998
Expert Panel Report, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. Guidelines for diagnosis and management of asthma. J Allergy Clin Imunol 1991; 88S: 425–534
DeNicola LK, Monem GF, O’Gayle M, et al. The treatment of critical status asthmaticus in children. Pediatr Clin North Am 1994; 41: 1293–324
Alario AJ, Lewander WJ, Dennehy P, et al. The relationship between oxygen saturation and the clinical assessment of acutely wheezing infants and children. Pediatr Emerg Care 1995; 11: 331–4
Gleeson JG, Green S, Price JF. Air or oxygen as driving gas for nebulised salbutamol. Arch Dis Child 1988; 63(8): 900–4
Geelhoed GC, Landau LI, Le Souef PN. Evaluation of SaO2 as predictor of outcome in 280 children presenting with acute asthma. Ann Emerg Med 1994; 23: 1236–41
Nickerson BG, Sarkisian C, Tremper K. Bias and precision of pulse oximeter and arterial oximeters. Chest 1988; 93: 515–7
Connett G, Lenney W. Prolonged hypoxaemia after nebulised salbutamol. Thorax 1993; 48: 574–5
Geelhoed GC, Landau LI, LeSoef PN. Predictive value of oxygen saturation in emergency evaluation of asthmatic children. BMJ 1988; 297(6645): 395–6
Sears MR. Clinical application of beta-agonists. Pract Allergy Immunol 1992; 7: 98–100
Svedmyr N. A beta2-adrenergic agonist for use in asthma: pharmacology; pharmacokinetics, clinical efficacy and adverse effects. Pharmacotherapy 1985; 5: 109–26
British Thoracic Society. Guidelines on the management of asthma. Thorax 1993; 48: S1–24
Newhouse MT. Are nebulizers obsolete for administering asthma medications to infants and children? Pediatr Pulmonol 1993; 15(5): 271–2
Kerem E, Levison H, Schuh S, et al. Efficacy of albuterol administered by nebulizer versus spacer device in children with acute asthma. J Pediatr 1993; 123(2): 313–7
Cates CJ, Rowe BH. Holding chambers versus nebulisers for beta-agonist treatment of acute asthma: a systematic revie wof randomised controlled trials (Cochrane Review). Available in The Cochrane Library [database on disk and CD ROM]. Updated quarterly. The Cochrane Collaboration; issue 4. Oxford: Update Software, 2000
Parkin PC, Saunders NR, Diamond PM, et al. Randomised trial of spacer v nebulizer for acute asthma. Arch Dis Child 1995; 72: 239–40
Chou KJ, Cunningham SJ, Crain EF. Metered-dose inhalers with spacers vs. nebulizers for pediatric asthma. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1995; 149: 201–5
Boweton DL, Goldsmith WA, Haponik EF. Substitution of metered-dose inhalers for hand-held nebulizers: success and cost saving in a large acute-care hospital. Chest 1992; 101: 305–8
Kamps AWA, Ewijk BV, Roorda RJ, et al. Poor inhalation technique, even after inhalation instruction, in children with asthma. Pediatr Pulmonol 2000; 29: 39–42
Barnes PJ. Beta adrenergic receptors and their regulation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 152: 838–60
Quadrel M, Lavey RF, Jaker M, et al. Prospective randomized trial of epinephrine, metaproterenol and both in the prehospital treatment of the adult patient. Ann Emerg Med 1995; 26: 469–73
Browne GJ, Penna AS, Phung X, et al. Randomised trial of intravenous salbutamol in early management of acute severe asthma in children. Lancet 1997; 349(9048): 301–5
Porthoy J, Nadel G, Amado M, et al. Continuous nebulization for status asthmaticus. Ann Allergy 1992; 69(1): 71–9
Rowe BH, Spooner C, Ducharme FM, et al. Early emergency department treatment of acute asthma with systemic corticosteroids (Cochrane Review). Available in The Cochrane Library [database on disk and CD ROM]. Updated quarterly. The Cochrane Collaboration; issue 4. Oxford: Update Software, 2000
Scarfone RJ, Fuchas SM, Nager AL, et al. Controlled trial of oral prednisolone in the emergency department treatment of children with acute asthma. Pediatrics 1993; 92(4): 513–8
Storr J, Barrell E, Barry W, et al. Effect of a single oral dose of prednisolone in acute childhood asthma. Lancet 1987; I(8538): 879–82
Lapin CD, Cloutier MM. Outpatient management of acute exacerbations of asthma in children. J Asthma 1995; 32(1): 5–20
Tal A, Levy N, Bearman JE. Methylprednisolone therapy for acute asthma in infants and toddlers: a controlled clinical trial. Pediatrics 1990; 86(3): 350–6
Rowe BH, Spooner CH, Ducharme FM, et al. Corticosteroids for preventing relapse following acute exacerbations of asthma (Cochrane Review). Available in The Cochrane Library [database on disk and CD ROM]. Updated quarterly. The Cochrane Collaboration; issue 4. Oxford: Update Software, 2000
Younger RE, Gerber PS, Herrod HG, et al. Intravenous methylprednisolone efficacy in status asthmaticus of children. Pediatrics 1987; 80: 225–30
Rodrigo C, Rodrigo G. Early administration of hydrocortisone in the emergency room treatment of acute asthma: a controlled clinical trial. Respir Med 1994; 88: 755–61
Barnes PJ. Inhaled glucocorticoids for asthma. N Engl J Med 1995; 332(13): 868–75
Edmonds ML, Camargo Jr CA, Pollack Jr CV, et al. Early use of inhaled corticosteroids in the emergency department treatment of acute asthma (Cochrane Review). Available in The Cochrane Library [database on disk and CD ROM]. Updated quarterly. The Cochrane Collaboration; issue 4. Oxford: Update Software, 2000
Matthews EE, Curtis PD, McLain BI, et al. Nebulized budesonide versus oral steroid in severe exacerbations of childhood asthma. Acta Paediatr 1999; 88(8): 841–3
Scarfone RJ, Loiselle JM, Wiley JF, et al. Nebulized dexamethasone versus oral prednisone in the emergency treatment of asthmatic children. Ann Emerg Med 1995; 26(4): 480–6
Devidayal S, Singhi S, Kumar L, et al. Efficacy of nebulized budesonide compared to oral prednisolone in acute bronchial asthma. Acta Paediatr 1999; 88(8): 835–40
Volovitz B, Bentur L, Finkelstein Y, et al. Effectiveness and safety of inhaled corticosteroids in controlling acute asthma attacks in children in the emergency department A controlled comparative study with oral prednisolone. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1998; 102: 605–9
Singhi SC, Banerjee S, Nanjundaswamy HM. Inhaled budesonide in acute asthma. J Pediatr Child Health 1999; 35: 483–7
Manjra AI, Price J, Lenney W, et al. Efficacy of nebulized fluticasone propionate compared with oral prednisolone in children with an acute exacerbation of asthma. Respir Med 2000; 94(12): 1206–14
Schuh S, Reisman J, Alshehri M, et al. A comparison of inhaled fluticasone and oral prednisolone for children with severe acute asthma. N Engl J Med 2000; 343(10): 689–94
Garrett J, Wlliams S, Wong C, et al. Application of asthma action plan to childhood asthma: a national survey. NZ Med J 1997; 110: 308–10
Garrett J, Williams S, Wong C, et al. Treatment of acute asthmatic exacerbations with an increased dose of inhaled steroid. Arch Dis Child 1998; 79: 12–7
Nuhoglu Y, Bahceciler NN, Barlan IB, et al. High-dose budesonide is helpful in acute asthma. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2001; 86: 318–22
Volovitz B, Nussinovitz M, Finkelstein Y, et al. Use of inhaled corticosteroids in controlling acute asthma exacerbation in children at home. Clin Pediatr 2001; 40(2): 79–86
Wilson NM, Silverman M. Treatment of acute, episodic asthma in preschool children using intermittent high dose inhaled steroids at home. Arch Dis Child 1990; 65(4): 407–10
Gross NJ. Drug therapy: ipratropium bromide. N Engl J Med 1988; 319: 468–96
Chapman K. An international perspective on anticholinergic therapy. Am J Med 1996; 100: 2–48
Silverman M. The role of anticholinergic bronchodilator therapy in children. Lung 1990; 168: 304–9
Plotnick LH, Ducharme FM. Combined inhaled anticholinergics and beta2-ago-nists for initial treatment of acute asthma in children (Cochrane Review). Available in The Cochrane Library [database on disk and CD ROM]. Updated quarterly. The Cochrane Collaboration; issue 4. Oxford: Update Software, 2000
Everard ML, Bara A, Kurian M. Anti-cholinergic drugs for wheeze in children under the age of two years (Cochrane Review). Available in The Cochrane Library [database on disk and CD ROM]. Updated quarterly. The Cochrane Collaboration; issue 4. Oxford: Update Software, 2000
Naspitz CK, Sole D. Treatment of acute wheezing and dyspnea attacks in children under 2 years old: inhalation of fenoterol plus ipratropium bromide versus fenoterol. J Asthma 1992; 29(4): 253–8
Downey P, Cox R. Update on the management of status asthmaticus. Curr Opin Pediatr 1996; 8: 228–33
Calvo GH, Calvo AM, Marin HF, et al. Is it useful to add an anticholinergic treatment to beta-2 adrenergic medication in acute asthma attack? J Invest Allergol Clin Immunol 1998; 8(1): 30–4
Osmond MH, Klassen TP. Efficacy of ipratropium bromide in acute childhood asthma a meta-analysis. Emerg Med 1995; 2(7): 651–6
Ducharme FM, Davis GM. Randomized controlled trial of ipratropium bromide and frequent low doses of salbutamol in the management of mild and moderate acute pediatric asthma. J Pediatr 1998; 133(4): 479–85
Littenberg B. Aminophylline treatment in severe acute asthma: A meta-analysis. JAMA 1988; 259: 1678–84
Hendelers L, Weinberger M, Szefler S, et al. Safety and efficacy of theophylline in children with asthma. J Pediatr 1992; 120 (2 Pt 1): 177–83
Okayama H, Aikawa T, Okayama M, et al. Bronchodilating effect of intravenous magnesium sulfate in bronchial asthma. JAMA 1987; 257: 1076–8
Rolla G, Bucca C, Caria E, et al. Acute effect of intravenous magnesium sulfate on airway obstruction of asthmatic patients. Ann Allergy 1988; 61: 388–91
Rowe BH, Bretzlaff JA, Bourdon C, et al. Magnesium sulfate for treating exacerbations of acute asthma in the emergency department (Cochrane Review). Available in The Cochrane Library [database on disk and CD ROM]. Updated quarterly. The Cochrane Collaboration; issue 4. Oxford: Update Software, 2000
Morgan M, Mays N, Holland WW. Can hospital use be a measure of need for health care? J Epidemiol Commun Health 1987; 41: 269–74
Connett GJ, Ward C, Wooler E, et al. Audit strategies to reduce hospital admission for acute asthma. Arch Dis Child 1993; 69: 202–5
Senthilsevan A. Effect of readmission on increasing hospital admission for asthma in children. Thorax 1995; 50: 934–6
Madge P, McColl J, Paton J. Impact of a nurse-led home management training programme in children admitted to hospital with acute asthma: a randomized controlled study. Thorax 1997; 52: 223–8
Greineder DK, Loanc KC, Parks P. Reduction in resource utilization by an asthma outreach program. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1995; 149: 415–20
Powell CVE, Maskell GR, Marks MK, et al. Successful implementation of spacer treatment guideline for acute asthma. Arch Dis Child 2001; 84: 142–6
Clark NM, Feldman CH, Evans D, et al. The impact of health education on frequency and cost of health care use by low income children with asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1986; 78: 108–15
Toogood JH, Baskerville J, Jennings BA, et al. Bioequivalent dose of budesonide and prednisolone in moderate and severe asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1989; 84: 688–700
Wennergren G, Nordvall SL, Hedlin G, et al. Nebulized budesonide for the treatment of moderate to severe asthma in infants and toddlers. Acta Pediatr 1996; 85: 183–9
Wesseldine LG, McCarthy P, Silverman M. Structured discharge procedure for children admitted to hospital with acute asthma: a randomized controlled trial of nursing practice. Arch Dis Child 1999; 80: 110–4
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge that no sources of funding were used in the preparation of this manuscript and that there are no conflicts of interest.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Volovitz, B., Nussinovitch, M. Management of Children with Severe Asthma Exacerbation in the Emergency Department. Pediatr-Drugs 4, 141–148 (2002). https://doi.org/10.2165/00128072-200204030-00001
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00128072-200204030-00001