Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Girls

Epidemiology and Management

  • Therapy In Practice
  • Published:
CNS Drugs Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in girls is a topic of growing research and clinical interest. For many years, girls with ADHD have been ignored and overshadowed by hyperkinetic and impulsive boys, but they are now attracting interest in an effort to understand the similarities and differences in the prevalence, symptoms, familial risk, comorbidities and treatment of ADHD in the two sexes. A review of past and current literature finds that the symptoms of ADHD are not sex specific, but that identification of girls with ADHD is hampered by parental and teacher bias, and confusion. Girls are more likely to be inattentive without being hyperactive or impulsive, compared with boys. Girls and boys share the same familial risk patterns, as well as similar, although not identical, comorbidity or impairment patterns. The risk of non-treatment is as great in girls as it is in boys; up to 70–80% of identified children will have persistent symptoms and impairment that extends into adolescence and adulthood. Treatment modalities are equally effective in girls and boys. Stimulants, non-stimulants and behavioural modalities are the mainstays of effective treatment.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Table I
Table II

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Schulte F. Current concepts in minimal brain dysfunction. JAMA 1971; 217(9): 1237–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders II. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1968

    Google Scholar 

  3. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1980

    Google Scholar 

  4. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 4thed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  5. Achenbach TM, Howell CT, Quay HC, et al. National survey of problems and competencies among four- to sixteen-year-olds: parents’ reports for normative and clinical samples. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev 1991; 56(3): 1–131

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Gaub M, Carlson CL. Gender differences in ADHD: a metaanalysis and critical review. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1997; 36(8): 1036–45

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Gershon J. A meta-analytic review of gender differences in ADHD. J Atten Disord 2002; 5(3): 143–54

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Lahey BB, Applegate B, McBurnett K, et al. DSM-IV field trials for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. Am J Psychiatry 1994; 151(11): 1673–85

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Faraone S, Sergeant J, Gillberg C, et al. The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: is it an American condition? World Psychiatry 2003; 2(2): 104–13

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Costello EJ, Mustillo S, Erkanli A, et al. Prevalence and development of psychiatric disorders in childhood and adolescence. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003; 60(8): 837–44

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Gleason D, Parker D. Hyperactivity in a group of children referred to a Scottish child guidance service: a significant problem. Br J Educ Psychol 1989; 59: 262–5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Taylor E, Sandberg S. Hyperactive behavior in English schoolchildren: a questionnaire survey. J Abnorm Child Psychol 1984; 12(1): 143–55

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. A 14-month randomized clinical trial of treatment strategies for ttention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. The MTA Cooperative Group. Multimodal Treatment Study of Children with ADHD. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1999; 56(12): 1073–86

    Google Scholar 

  14. Robison LM, Skaer TL, Sclar DA, et al. Is attention deficit hyperactivity disorder increasing among girls in the US? Trends in diagnosis and the prescribing of stimulants. CNS Drugs 2002; 16(2): 129–37

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Biederman J, Mick E, Faraone SV, et al. Influence of gender on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children referred to a psychiatric clinic. Am J Psychiatry 2002; 159(1): 36–42

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Greene RW, Biederman J, Faraone SV, et al. Social impairment in girls with ADHD: patterns, gender comparisons, and correlates. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2001; 40(6): 704–10

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Hudziak JJ, Heath AC, Madden PF, et al. Latent class and factor analysis of DSM-IV ADHD: a twin study of female adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1998; 37(8): 848–57

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Angold A, Costello EJ, Farmer EM, et al. Impaired but undiagnosed. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1999; 38(2): 129–37

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Costello EJ, Angold A, Keeler GP. Adolescent outcomes of childhood disorders: the consequences of severity and impairment. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1999; 38(2): 121–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Costello EJ, Costello AJ, Edelbrock C, et al. Psychiatric disorders in pediatric primary care. Prevalence and risk factors. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988; 45(12): 1107–16

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Biederman J, Faraone SV, Mick E, et al. Clinical correlates of ADHD in females: findings from a large group of girls ascertained from pediatric and psychiatric referral sources. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1999; 38(8): 966–75

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Graetz BW, Sawyer MG, Baghurst P. Gender differences among children with DSM-IV ADHD in Australia. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2005; 44(2): 159–68

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Applegate B, Lahey BB, Hart EL, et al. Validity of the age-ofonset criterion for ADHD: a report from the DSM-IV field trials. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1997; 36(9): 1211–21

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Barkley RA, Biederman J. Toward a broader definition of the age-of-onset criterion for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1997; 36(9): 1204–10

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Gordon M, Antshel KM, Faraone S, et al. Symptoms versus impairment: the case for respecting DSM-IV’s criterion b. ADHD Report 2005; 13(4): 1–8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Bird HR, Canino G, Rubio-Stipec M, et al. Estimates of the prevalence of childhood maladjustment in a community survey in Puerto Rico: the use of combined measures. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988; 45(12): 1120–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Simonoff E, Pickles A, Meyer JM, et al. The Virginia Twin Study of Adolescent Behavioral Development: influences of age, sex, and impairment on rates of disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1997; 54(9): 801–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Hinshaw SP. Preadolescent girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: I. Background characteristics, comorbidity, cognitive and social functioning, and parenting practices. J Consult Clin Psychol 2002; 70(5): 1086–98

    Google Scholar 

  29. Quinn P, Wigal S. Perceptions of girls and ADHD: results from a national survey. MedGenMed 2004; 6(2): 2

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Levy F, Hay DA, Bennett KS, et al. Gender differences in ADHD subtype comorbidity. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2005; 44(4): 368–76

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Thurber JR, Heller TL, Hinshaw SP. The social behaviors and peer expectation of girls with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and comparison girls. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 2002; 31(4): 443–52

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Collett BR, Gimpel GA. Maternal and child attributions in ADHD versus non-ADHD populations. J Atten Disord 2004; 7(4): 187–96

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Klassen AF, Miller A, Fine S. Health-related quality of life in children and adolescents who have a diagnosis of attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics 2004; 114(5): e541–547

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Hoza B, Gerdes AC, Hinshaw SP, et al. Self-perceptions of competence in children with ADHD and comparison children. J Consult Clin Psychol 2004; 72(3): 382–91

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Ohan JL, Johnston C. Are the performance overestimates given by boys with ADHD self-protective? J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 2002; 31(2): 230–41

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Barkley RA. Hyperactive girls and boys: stimulant drug effects on mother-child interactions. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1989; 30(3): 379–90

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Durston S. A review of the biological bases of ADHD: what have we learned from imaging studies? Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev 2003; 9(3): 184–95

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Powell KB, Voeller KK. Prefrontal executive function syndromes in children. J Child Neurol 2004; 19(10): 785–97

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Roth RM, Saykin AJ. Executive dysfunction in attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder: cognitive and neuroimaging findings. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2004; 27(1): 83–96, ix

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Seidman LJ, Biederman J, Monuteaux MC, et al. Impact of gender and age on executive functioning: do girls and boys with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder differ neuropsychologically in preteen and teenage years? Dev Neuropsychol 2005; 27(1): 79–105

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Faraone SV, Biederman J, Mennin D, et al. A prospective fouryear follow-up study of children at risk for ADHD: psychiatric, neuropsychological, and psychosocial outcome. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1996; 35(11): 1449–59

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Chhabildas N, Pennington BF, Willcutt EG. A comparison of the neuropsychological profiles of the DSM-IV subtypes of ADHD. J Abnorm Child Psychol 2001; 29(6): 529–40

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Kessler RC, McGonagle KA, Zhao S, et al. Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States: results from the National Comorbidity Survey. rch Gen Psychiatry 1994; 51(1): 8–19

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Biederman J, Newcorn J, Sprich S. Comorbidity of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder with conduct, depressive, anxiety, and other disorders. Am J Psychiatry 1991; 148(5): 564–77

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Faraone SV, Biederman J, Mick E, et al. A family study of psychiatric comorbidity in girls and boys with attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2001; 50(8): 586–92

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Horn WF, Wagner AE, Ialongo N. Sex differences in schoolaged children with pervasive attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Abnorm Child Psychol 1989; 17(1): 109–25

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Mannuzza S, Gittelman R. The adolescent outcome of hyperactive girls. Psychiatry Res 1984; 13(1): 19–29

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Monuteaux MC, Fitzmaurice G, Blacker D, et al. Specificity in the familial aggregation of overt and covert conduct disorder symptoms in a referred attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder sample. Psychol Med 2004; 34(6): 1113–27

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Crick NR. The role of overt aggression, relational aggression, and prosocial behavior in the prediction of children’s future social adjustment. Child Dev 1996; 67(5): 2317–27

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Crick NR, Grotpeter JK. Relational aggression, gender, and social-psychological adjustment. Child Dev 1995; 66(3): 710–22

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Biederman J, Wilens T, Mick E, et al. Psychoactive substance use disorders in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): effects of ADHD and psychiatric comorbidity. Am J Psychiatry 1995; 152(11): 1652–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Levin FR, Kleber HD. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and substance abuse: relationships and implications for treatment. Harv Rev Psychiatry 1995; 2(5): 246–58

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Molina BS, Pelham WE. Childhood predictors of adolescent substance use in a longitudinal study of children with ADHD. J Abnorm Psychol 2003; 112(3): 497–507

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Rounsaville BJ, Anton SF, Carroll K, et al. Psychiatric diagnoses of treatment-seeking cocaine abusers. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991; 48(1): 43–51

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Wilens TE, Biederman J, Spencer TJ, et al. Comorbidity of attention-deficit hyperactivity and psychoactive substance use disorders. Hosp Community Psychiatry 1994; 45(5): 421–3, 435

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Barkley RA, Fischer M, Smallish L, et al. Does the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder with stimulants contribute to drug use/abuse? A 13-year prospective study. Pediatrics 2003; 111(1): 97–109

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Disney ER, Elkins IJ, McGue M, et al. Effects of ADHD, conduct disorder, and gender on substance use and abuse in adolescence. Am J Psychiatry 1999; 156(10): 1515–21

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Milberger S, Biederman J, Faraone SV, et al. Associations between ADHD and psychoactive substance use disorders: findings from a longitudinal study of high-risk siblings of ADHD children. Am J Addict 1997; 6(4): 318–29

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Biederman J, Faraone SV, Monuteaux MC. Differential effect of environmental adversity by gender: Rutter’s index of adversity in a group of boys and girls with and without ADHD. Am J Psychiatry 2002; 159(9): 1556–62

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Armstrong TD, Costello EJ. Community studies on adolescent substance use, abuse, or dependence and psychiatric comorbidity. J Consult Clin Psychol 2002; 70(6): 1224–39

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Boyle MH, Offord DR. Psychiatric disorder and substance use in adolescence. Can J Psychiatry 1991; 36(10): 699–705

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Greenbaum PE, Prange ME, Friedman RM, et al. Substance abuse prevalence and comorbidity with other psychiatric disorders among adolescents with severe emotional disturbances. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1991; 30(4): 575–83

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Latimer WW, Stone AL, Voight A, et al. Gender differences in psychiatric comorbidity among adolescents with substance use disorders. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 2002; 10(3): 310–5

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Molina BS, Bukstein OG, Lynch KG. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and conduct disorder symptomatology in adolescents with alcohol use disorder. Psychol Addict Behav 2002; 16(2): 161–4

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Faraone SV, Biederman J. Neurobiology of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry 1998; 44(10): 951–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Faraone SV, Doyle AE. The nature and heritability of attentiondeficit/ hyperactivity disorder. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 2001; 10(2): 299–316, viii-x

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Neuman RJ, Todd RD, Heath AC, et al. Evaluation of ADHD typology in three contrasting samples: a latent class approach. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1999; 38(1): 25–33

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Faraone S, Perlis R, Doyle A, et al. Molecular genetics of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2005 Jun 1; 57(11): 1313–23

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Biederman J, Faraone SV, Keenan K, et al. Further evidence for family-genetic risk factors in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: patterns of comorbidity in probands and relatives psychiatrically and pediatrically referred samples. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1992; 49(9): 728–38

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Epstein JN, Conners CK, Erhardt D, et al. Familial aggregation of ADHD characteristics. J Abnorm Child Psychol 2000; 28(6): 585–94

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Faraone SV, Biederman J, Lehman BK, et al. Evidence for the independent familial transmission of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and learning disabilities: results from a family genetic study. Am J Psychiatry 1993; 150(6): 891–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Faraone SV, Biederman J, Milberger S. An exploratory study of ADHD among second-degree relatives of ADHD children. Biol Psychiatry 1994; 35(6): 398–402

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Bradley JD, Golden CJ. Biological contributions to the presentation and understanding of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a review. Clin Psychol Rev 2001; 21(6): 907–29

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Faraone SV, Biederman J, Mick E, et al. Family study of girls with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2000; 157(7): 1077–83

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Willcutt EG, Pennington BF, DeFries JC. Etiology of inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity in a community sample of twins with learning difficulties. J Abnorm Child Psychol 2000; 28(2): 149–59

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Milberger S, Biederman J, Faraone SV, et al. Pregnancy, delivery and infancy complications and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: issues of gene-environment interaction. Biol Psychiatry 1997; 41(1): 65–75

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Antshel KM, Waisbren SE. Timing is everything: executive functions in children exposed to elevated levels of phenylalanine. Neuropsychology 2003; 17(3): 458–68

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Kotimaa AJ, Moilanen I, Taanila A, et al. Maternal smoking and hyperactivity in 8-year-old children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2003; 42(7): 826–33

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Milberger S, Biederman J, Faraone SV, et al. Is maternal smoking during pregnancy a risk factor for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children? Am J Psychiatry 1996; 153(9): 1138–42

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Alon U, Naveh Y, Gardos M, et al. Neurological sequelae of septic meningitis: a follow-up study of 65 children. Isr J Med Sci 1979; 15(6): 512–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Dell’Anna ME, Luthman J, Lindqvist E, et al. Development of monoamine systems after neonatal anoxia in rats. Brain Res Bull 1993; 32(2): 159–70

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Fallon BA, Kochevar JM, Gaito A, et al. The underdiagnosis of neuropsychiatric Lyme disease in children and adults. Psychiatr Clin North Am 1998; 21(3): 693–703, viii

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Konofal E, Lecendreux M, Arnulf I, et al. Iron deficiency in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2004; 158(12): 1113–5

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Max JE, Arndt S, Castillo CS, et al. Attention-deficit hyperactivity symptomatology after traumatic brain injury: a prospective study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1998; 37(8): 841–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Max JE, Fox PT, Lancaster JL, et al. Putamen lesions and the development of attention-deficit/hyperactivity symptomatology. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2002; 41(5): 563–71

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Max JE, Mathews K, Manes FF, et al. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and neurocognitive correlates after childhood stroke. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2003; 9(6): 815–29

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Peterson BS, Leckman JF, Tucker D, et al. Preliminary findings of antistreptococcal antibody titers and basal ganglia volumes in tic, obsessive-compulsive, and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2000; 57(4): 364–72

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Thomson GO, Raab GM, Hepburn WS, et al. Blood-lead levels and children’s behaviour: results from the Edinburgh Lead Study. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1989; 30(4): 515–28

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Castellanos FX, Giedd JN, Berquin PC, et al. Quantitative brain magnetic resonance imaging in girls with attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2001; 58(3): 289–95

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Castellanos FX, Giedd JN, Marsh WL, et al. Quantitative brain magnetic resonance imaging in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1996; 53(7): 607–16

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Castellanos FX, Lee PP, Sharp W, et al. Developmental trajectories of brain volume abnormalities in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. JAMA 2002; 288(14): 1740–8

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Filipek PA, Semrud-Clikeman M, Steingard RJ, et al. Volumetric MRI analysis comparing subjects having attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder with normal controls. Neurology 1997; 48(3): 589–601

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Mostofsky SH, Cooper KL, Kates WR, et al. Smaller prefrontal and premotor volumes in boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2002; 52(8): 785–94

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Barry RJ, Clarke AR, McCarthy R, et al. EEG coherence in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a comparative study of two DSM-IV types. Clin Neurophysiol 2002; 113(4): 579–85

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Clarke AR, Barry RJ, McCarthy R, et al. EEG-defined subtypes of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Clin Neurophysiol 2001; 112(11): 2098–105

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Clarke AR, Barry RJ, McCarthy R, et al. Age and sex effects in the EEG: differences in two subtypes of attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder. Clin Neurophysiol 2001; 112(5): 815–26

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Clarke AR, Barry RJ, McCarthy R, et al. EEG activity in girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Clin Neurophysiol 2003; 114(2): 319–28

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Durston S, Tottenham NT, Thomas KM, et al. Differential atterns of striatal activation in young children with and without ADHD. Biol Psychiatry 2003; 53(10): 871–8

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Ernst M, Cohen RM, Liebenauer LL, et al. Cerebral glucose metabolism in adolescent girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1997; 36(10): 1399–406

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Ernst M, Liebenauer LL, King AC, et al. Reduced brain metabolism in hyperactive girls. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1994; 33(6): 858–68

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Gustafsson P, Thernlund G, Ryding E, et al. Associations between cerebral blood-flow measured by single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), electro-encephalogram (EEG), behaviour symptoms, cognition and neurological soft signs in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Acta Paediatr 2000; 89(7): 830–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Lorberboym M, Watemberg N, Nissenkorn A, et al. Technetium 99m ethylcysteinate dimer single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) during intellectual stress test in children and adolescents with pure versus comorbid attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). J Child Neurol 2004; 19(2): 91–6

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Zametkin AJ, Liebenauer LL, Fitzgerald GA, et al. Brain metabolism in teenagers with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1993; 50(5): 333–40

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Rohde LA, Roman T, Szobot C, et al. Dopamine transporter gene, response to methylphenidate and cerebral blood flow in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a pilot study. Synapse 2003; 48(2): 87–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Roman T, Szobot C, Martins S, et al. Dopamine transporter gene and response to methylphenidate in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pharmacogenetics 2002; 12(6): 497–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Hamarman S, Fossella J, Ulger C, et al. Dopamine receptor 4 (DRD4) 7-repeat allele predicts methylphenidate dose response in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a pharmacogenetic study. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2004; 14(4): 564–74

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. DuPaul GJ, McGoey KE, Eckert TL, et al. Preschool children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: impairments in behavioral, social, and school functioning. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2001; 40(5): 508–15

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Biederman J, Faraone SV. The Massachusetts General Hospital studies of gender influences on attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in youth and relatives. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2004; 27(2): 225–32

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Semrud-Clikeman M, Biederman J, Sprich-Buckminster S, et al. Comorbidity between ADDH and learning disability: a review and report in a clinically referred sample. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1992; 31(3): 439–48

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Williams D, Stott CM, Goodyer IM, et al. Specific language impairment with or without hyperactivity: neuropsychological evidence for frontostriatal dysfunction. Dev Med Child Neurol 2000; 42(6): 368–75

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Barkley RA, Fischer M, Edelbrock CS, et al. The adolescent outcome of hyperactive children diagnosed by research criteria: I. An 8-year prospective follow-up study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1990; 29(4): 546–57

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Biederman J, Faraone SV, Spencer T, et al. Patterns of psychiatric comorbidity, cognition, and psychosocial functioning in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1993; 150(12): 1792–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Biederman J, Faraone S, Milberger S, et al. Predictors of persistence and remission of ADHD into adolescence: results from a four-year prospective follow-up study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1996; 35(3): 343–51

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Barkley RA. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. 2nd ed. New York: Guilford Press, 1998

    Google Scholar 

  115. Cantwell DP. Attention deficit disorder: a review of the past 10 years. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1996; 35(8): 978–87

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Dalsgaard S, Mortensen PB, Frydenberg M, et al. Conduct problems, gender and adult psychiatric outcome of children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Br J Psychiatry 2002; 181: 416–21

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Abikoff H, Hechtman L, Klein RG, et al. Social functioning in children with ADHD treated with long-term methylphenidate and multimodal psychosocial treatment. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2004; 43(7): 820–9

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Abikoff H, Hechtman L, Klein RG, et al. Symptomatic improvement in children with ADHD treated with long-term methylphenidate and multimodal psychosocial treatment. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2004; 43(7): 802–11

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Hechtman L, Abikoff H, Klein RG, et al. Children with ADHD treated with long-term methylphenidate and multimodal psychosocial treatment: impact on parental practices. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2004; 43(7): 830–8

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Hechtman L, Abikoff H, Klein RG, et al. Academic achievement and emotional status of children with ADHD treated with long-term methylphenidate and multimodal psychosocial treatment. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2004; 43(7): 812–9

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Horn WF, Ialongo NS, Pascoe JM, et al. Additive effects of psychostimulants, parent training, and self-control therapy with ADHD children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1991; 30(2): 233–40

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Hoza B, Gerdes AC, Mrug S, et al. Peer-assessed outcomes in the multimodal treatment study of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 2005; 34(1): 74–86

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Ialongo NS, Horn WF, Pascoe JM, et al. The effects of a multimodal intervention with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder children: a 9-month follow-up. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1993; 32(1): 182–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. National Institute of Mental Health Multimodal Treatment Study of ADHD followup: 24-month outcomes of treatment strategies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. MTA Cooperative Group. Pediatrics 2004; 114(2): 754–61

    Google Scholar 

  125. Miranda A, Presentation MJ, Soriano M. Effectiveness of a school-based multicomponent program for the treatment of children with ADHD. J Learn Disabil 2002; 35(6): 546–62

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Murphy K. Psychosocial treatments for ADHD in teens and adults: a practice-friendly review. J Clin Psychol 2005; 61(5): 607–19

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Voeller KK. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). J Child Neurol 2004; 19(10): 798–814

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Harvey E, Danforth JS, McKee TE, et al. Parenting of children with attention-defecit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): the role of parental ADHD symptomatology. J Atten Disord 2003; 7(1): 31–42

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Rose DH, Meyer A. Teaching every student in the digital age: universal design for learning. Alexandria (VA): ASCD, 2002

    Google Scholar 

  130. Christakis DA, Zimmerman FJ, DiGiuseppe DL, et al. Early television exposure and subsequent attentional problems in children. Pediatrics 2004; 113(4): 708–13

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Zimmerman FJ, Christakis DA. Children’s television viewing and cognitive outcomes: a longitudinal analysis of national data. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2005; 159(7): 619–25

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Faraone SV, Short EJ, Biederman J, et al. Efficacy of Adderall and methylphenidate in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a drug-placebo and drug-drug response curve analysis of a naturalistic study. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2002; 5(2): 121–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Jensen PS, Hinshaw SP, Swanson JM, et al. Findings from the NIMH Multimodal Treatment Study of ADHD (MTA): implications and applications for primary care providers. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2001; 22(1): 60–73

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Shaywitz BA, Fletcher JM, Shaywitz SE. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Curr Treat Options Neurol 2001; 3(3): 229–36

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Glaser PE, Thomas TC, Joyce BM, et al. Differential effects of amphetamine isomers on dopamine release in the rat striatum and nucleus accumbens core. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2005; 178(2-3): 250–8

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Fowler JS, et al. Dopamine transporter occupancies in the human brain induced by therapeutic doses of oral methylphenidate. Am J Psychiatry 1998; 155(10): 1325–31

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Christman AK, Fermo JD, Markowitz JS. Atomoxetine, a novel treatment for attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder. Pharmacotherapy 2004; 24(8): 1020–36

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Kratochvil CJ, Vaughan BS, Daughton JM, et al. Atomoxetine in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Expert Rev Neurother 2004; 4(4): 601–11

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Hechtman L, Greenfield B. Long-term use of stimulants in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: safety, efficacy, and long-term outcome. Paediatr Drugs 2003; 5(12): 787–94

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Spencer TJ, Biederman J, Wilens TE, et al. Novel treatments for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children. J Clin Psychiatry 2002; 63 Suppl. 12: 16–22

    Google Scholar 

  141. Pliszka SR. Non-stimulant treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. CNS Spectr 2003; 8(4): 253–8

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Connor DF, Fletcher KE, Swanson JM. A meta-analysis of clonidine for symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1999; 38(12): 1551–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. Hazell PL, Stuart JE. A randomized controlled trial of clonidine added to psychostimulant medication for hyperactive and aggressive children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2003; 42(8): 886–94

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  144. Scahill L, Chappell PB, Kim YS, et al. A placebo-controlled study of guanfacine in the treatment of children with tic disorders and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2001; 158(7): 1067–74

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  145. Safer DJ, Zito JM, Gardner JE. Pemoline hepatotoxicity and postmarketing surveillance. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2001; 40(6): 622–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Schwartz JR, Feldman NT, Fry JM, et al. Efficacy and safety of odafinil for improving daytime wakefulness in patients treated previously with psychostimulants. Sleep Med 2003; 4(1): 43–9

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Markowitz JS, Straughn AB, Patrick KS. Advances in the pharmacotherapy of attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder: focus on methylphenidate formulations. Pharmacotherapy 2003; 23(10): 1281–99

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Pelham WE, Walker JL, Sturges J, et al. Comparative effects of methylphenidate on ADD girls and ADD boys. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1989; 28(5): 773–6

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  149. Sharp WS, Walter JM, Marsh WL, et al. ADHD in girls: clinical comparability of a research sample. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1999; 38(1): 40–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  150. Poulton A. Growth on stimulant medication; clarifying the confusion: a review. Arch Dis Child 2005; 90(8): 801–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This paper was not funded. Dr Staller has received research support from AstraZeneca Pharmaceuticals. Dr Faraone has received honoraria and research support from Shire, McNeill and Eli Lilly.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. SUNY Upstate Medical University, 750 East Adams Street, Syracuse, New York, 13210, USA

    Jud Staller & Stephen V. Faraone

Authors
  1. Jud Staller
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Stephen V. Faraone
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jud Staller.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Staller, J., Faraone, S.V. Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Girls. CNS Drugs 20, 107–123 (2006). https://doi.org/10.2165/00023210-200620020-00003

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00023210-200620020-00003

Keywords

Search

Navigation