Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Drug-Induced Myoclonus

Frequency, Mechanisms and Management

  • Review Article
  • Published:
CNS Drugs Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Myoclonus is a sudden, abrupt, brief, ‘shock-like’ involuntary movement caused by muscular contractions (‘positive myoclonus’) or a sudden brief lapse of muscle contraction in active postural muscles (‘negative myoclonus’ or ‘asterixis’). Various disorders can cause myoclonus including neurodegenerative and systemic metabolic disorders and CNS infections. In addition, myoclonus has been described as an adverse effect of some drugs. Level II evidence is available to indicate that levodopa, cyclic antidepressants and bismuth salts can cause myoclonus, while there is less robust evidence to associate numerous other drugs with the induction of myoclonus.

The pharmacological mechanisms responsible for this adverse effect are not well established, although increased serotonergic transmission may be involved in the induction of myoclonus by several drugs. Drug-induced myoclonus usually resolves after withdrawal of the offending drug, but in some cases specific treatments are needed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Table I

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Marsden CD, Hallet M, Fahn S. The nosology and pathophysiology of myoclonus. In: Marsden CD, Fahn S, editors. Movement disorders. London: Butterworths, 1981: 196–248

    Google Scholar 

  2. Fahn S, Marsden CD, van Woert MH. Definition and classification of myoclonus. Adv Neurol 1986; 43: 1–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Jiménez-Jiménez FJ, Luquin MR, Molina JA. Concepto y clasificación de los trastornos del movimiento. In: Jiménez-Jiménez FJ, Luquin MR, Molina JA, editors. Tratado de los trastornos del movimiento. Madrid: IM&C, 1998: 3–17

    Google Scholar 

  4. Giménez-Roldán S. Neuropharmacology and treatment of myoclonus. In: Jankovic J, Tolosa E, editors. Parkinson’s disease and movement disorders. 3rd ed. Baltimore (MD): Williams & Wilkins, 1998: 467–90.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Jiménez-Jiménez FJ, García-Ruiz PJ, Molina JA. Drug-induced movement disorders. Drug Saf 1997; 16: 180–204

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Gordon MF. Toxin and drug-induced myoclonus. Adv Neurol 2002; 89: 49–76

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. American Academy of Neurology Quality Standards Subcommittee. Practice parameters: initial therapy of Parkinson’s disease. Neurology 1993; 43: 1296–7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Cotzias GC, Papavasioliou PS, Gellene R. Modification of parkinsonism-chronic treatment with levodopa. N Engl J Med 1969; 280: 337–45

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Klawans HL, Goetz C, Bergen D. Levodopa induced myoclonus. Arch Neurol 1975; 32: 331–4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Vardi J, Glaubman H, Rabey JM, et al. Myoclonic attacks induced by L-dopa and bromocryptin in Parkinson patients: a sleep EEG study. J Neurol 1978; 218: 35–42

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Sandyk R. L-dopa induced “serotonin syndrome” in a parkinsonian patient on bromocriptine. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1986; 6: 194–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Hirschorn KA, Greenberg HS. Successful treatment of levodopa-induced myoclonus and levodopa withdrawal-induced neuroleptic malignant syndrome: a case report. Clin Neuropharmacol 1988; 11: 278–81

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Nausieda PA, Weiner WJ, Kaplan LR, et al. Sleep disruption in the course of chronic levodopa therapy: an early feature of the levodopa psychosis. Clin Neuropharmacol 1982; 5: 183–94

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Tandberg E, Larsen JP, Karlsen K. A community-based study of sleep disorders in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord 1998; 13: 895–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Luquin MR, Scipioni O, Vaamonde J, et al. Levodopa-induced dyskinesias in Parkinson’s disease: clinical and pharmacological classification. Mov Disord 1992; 7: 117–24

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Marconi R, Lefebvre-Caparros D, Bonnet AM, et al. Levodopa-induced dyskinesias in Parkinson’s disease: phenomenology and pathophysiology. Mov Disord 1994; 9: 2–12

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Glantz R, Weiner WJ, Goetz CG, et al. Drug-induced asterixis in Parkinson’s disease. Neurology 1982; 32: 553–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Neufeld MY. Periodic triphasic waves in levodopa-induced encephalopathy. Neurology 1992; 42: 444–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Yoshida K, Morikawa F, Matsuura T, et al. Myoclonus and seizures in a patient with parkinsonism: induction by levodopa and its confirmation on SEPS. Jpn J Psychiatry Neurol 1993; 47: 621–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Buchman AS, Bennett DA, Goetz CG. Bromocriptine-induced myoclonus. Neurology 1987; 37: 885

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Pfeiffer RF. Amantadine-induced “vocal” myoclonus. Mov Disord 1996; 11: 104–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Onofrj M, Thomas A, Iacono D, et al. Switch-over from tolcapone to entacapone in severe Parkinson’s disease patients. Eur Neurol 2001; 46: 11–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Noble J, Matthew H. Acute poisoning by tricyclic antidepressants: clinical features and management of 100 patients. Clin Toxicol 1969; 2: 403–21

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Darcourt G, Fadeuilhe A, Lavagna J, et al. Trois cas de myoclonies d’action au cors de traitements par l’imipramine et l’amitriptyline. Rev Neurol (Paris) 1970; 122: 141–2

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Schulze B. Zur frage medikamentos induzierter cerebraler reaktionen: ein fall von myoklonischen status under behanlung mit trycyclishen antidepressiva. Nervenarzt 1972; 43: 332–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Burks JS, Walker JE, Rumack BH, et al. Tricyclic antidepressant poisoning: reversal of coma, choreoathetosis and myoclonus by physostigmine. JAMA 1974; 230: 1405–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Holinger PC, Klawans HL. Reversal of tricyclic-overdosage-induced central anticholinergic syndrome by physostigmine. Am J Psychiatry 1976; 133: 1018–23

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Lippmann S, Moskovitz R, O’Tuama L. Tricyclic induced myoclonus. Am J Psychiatry 1977; 134: 90–1

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Lippmann S, Tucker D, Wagemaker H, et al. A second report of tricyclic-induced myoclonus [letter]. Am J Psychiatry 1977; 134: 585–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Kettl P, De Paulo Jr JR. Maprotiline-induced myoclonus [letter]. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1983; 3: 264–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Myers BM, Klerman GL, Hartmann E. Nocturnal cataclysms with myoclonus: a new side effect of clomipramine [letter]. Am J Psychiatry 1986; 143: 1490–1

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Garvey MJ, Tollefson GD. Occurrence of myoclonus in patients treated with cyclic antidepressants. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1987; 44: 269–72

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Casas M, Garcia-Ribera C, Alvarez E, et al. Myoclonic movements as a side-effect of treatment with therapeutic doses of clomipramine. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1987; 2: 333–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Devanand DP, Sackeim HA, Brown RP. Myoclonus during combined tricyclic antidepressant and lithium treatment [letter]. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1988; 8: 446–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Fukuzako H, Hokazono Y, Tominaga H, et al. Jerk-locked averaging and somatosensory evoked potential in tricyclic-induced myoclonus: a case report. Jpn J Psychiatry Neurol 1989; 43: 645–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Forstl H, Pohlmann-Eden B. Amplitudes of somatosensory evoked potentials reflect cortical hyperexcitability in antidepressant-induced myoclonus. Neurology 1990; 40: 924–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Patterson JF. Myoclonus caused by a tricyclic antidepressant. South Med J 1990; 83: 463–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Forstl H, Zagorski A, Pohlmann-Eden B. Somatosensory evoked potentials as indicators of altered cerebral excitability during psychotropic drug treatment. Biol Psychiatry 1991; 29: 397–402

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Forstl H, Pohlmann-Eden B, Rothenberger A. Veranderungen somatosensibel evozierter potentiale bei pharmakogener myoklonie. Nervenarzt 1992; 63: 359–62

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Lejoyeux M, Rouillon F, Ades J, et al. Neural symptoms induced by tricyclic antidepressants: phenomenology and pathophysiology. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1992; 85: 249–56

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Masand P. Desipramine-induced oral-pharyngeal disturbances: stuttering and jaw myoclonus [letter]. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1992; 12: 444–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Lejoyeux M, Ades J, Rouillon F. Myoclonies chez les patients traites par antidepresseurs tricycliques: evaluation prospective [letter]. Presse Med 1994; 23: 447

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Black KJ, Kilzieh N. Severe imipramine-induced myoclonus in a patient with psychotic bipolar depression, catatonia, and schizencephaly. Ann Clin Psychiatry 1994; 6: 45–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Brogmus KE, Lesch A. Psychopharmakainduzierte myoklonien. Psychiatr Prax 1995; 22: 77–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Ackerman DL, Greenland S, Bystritsky A, et al. Relationship between early side effects and therapeutic effects of clomipramine therapy in obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1996; 16: 324–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Vandel P, Bonin B, Leveque E, et al. Tricyclic antidepressant-induced extrapyramidal side effects. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 1997; 7: 207–12

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Evidente VG, Caviness JN. Focal cortical transient preceding myoclonus during lithium and tricyclic antidepressant therapy. Neurology 1999; 52: 211–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Patel HC, Bruza D, Yeragani V. Myoclonus with trazodone [letter]. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1988; 8: 152

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Feighner JP, Boyer WF, Tyler DL, et al. Adverse consequences of fluoxetine-MAOI combination therapy. J Clin Psychiatry 1990; 51: 222–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Lauterbach EC. Reversible intermittent rhythmic myoclonus with fluoxetine in presumed Pick’s disease. Mov Disord 1994; 9: 343–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Lauterbach EC. Fluoxetine, buspirone, myoclonus, and dystonia [letter]. Am J Psychiatry 1995; 152: 1697

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Bauer M. Severe myoclonus produced by fluvoxamine [letter]. J Clin Psychiatry 1995; 56: 589–90

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Bharucha KJ, Sethi KD. Complex movement disorders induced by fluoxetine. Mov Disord 1996; 11: 324–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Spigset O, Hedenmalm K, Dahl ML, et al. Seizures and myoclonus associated with antidepressant treatment: assessment of potential risk factors, including CYP2D6 and CYP2C19 polymorphisms, and treatment with CYP2D6 inhibitors. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1997; 96: 379–84

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Ghaziuddin N, Iqbal A, Khetarpal S. Myoclonus during prolonged treatment with sertraline in an adolescent patient. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2001; 11: 199–202

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Darko W, Guharoy R, Rose F, et al. Myoclonus secondary to the concurrent use of trazodone and fluoxetine. Vet Hum Toxicol 2001; 43: 214–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Cohen RM, Pickar D, Murphy DL. Myoclonus-associated hypomania during MAO-inhibitor treatment. Am J Psychiatry 1980; 137(1): 105–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Levy AB, Bucher P, Votolato N. Myoclonus, hyperreflexia and diaphoresis in patients on phenelzine-tryptophan combination treatment. Can J Psychiatry 1985; 30: 434–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. White PD. Myoclonus and episodic delirium associated with phenelzine: a case report. J Clin Psychiatry 1987; 48: 340–1

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Naylor MW, Grunhaus L, Cameron O. Myoclonic seizures after abrupt withdrawal from phenelzine and alprazolam. J Nerv Ment Dis 1987; 175: 111–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Askenasy JJ, Yahr MD. Is monoamine oxidase inhibitor induced myoclonus serotoninergically mediated? J Neural Transm 1988; 72: 67–76

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Morgan JL, Brown TM, Wallace IV ER. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors and sleep movements [letter]. Am J Psychiatry 1994; 151: 782

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. De Larquier A, Vial T, Brejoux G, et al. Syndrome serotoninergique lors de l’association tramadol et iproniazide [letter]. Therapie 1999; 54: 767–8

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Lemus CZ, Lieberman JA, Johns CA. Myoclonus during treatment with clozapine and lithium: the role of serotonin. Hillside J Clin Psychiatry 1989; 11: 127–30

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Rosen PD, Stevens R. Action myoclonus in lithium toxicity. Ann Neurol 1983; 13: 221–2

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Julius SC, Brenner RP. Myoclonic seizures with lithium. Biol Psychiatry 1987; 22: 1184–90

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Prettyman R. Lithium neurotoxicity at subtherapeutic serum levels [letter]. Br J Psychiatry 1994; 164: 123

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Takahashi M, Hashimoto S, Suenaga T, et al. Creutzfeldt-Jakob like syndrome due to lithium intoxication: a case report. Rinsho Shinkeigaku 1997; 37: 338–40

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Drouet A, Valance J. Myoclonies de repos et d’action induites par la piperazine. Rev Med Interne 1994; 15: 364–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Tominaga H, Fukuzako H, Izumi K, et al. Tardive myoclonus [letter]. Lancet 1987; I: 322

    Article  Google Scholar 

  71. Fukuzako H, Tominaga H, Izumi K, et al. Postural myoclonus associated with long-term administration of neuroleptics in schizophrenic patients. Biol Psychiatry 1990; 27: 1116–26

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Little JT, Jankovic J. Tardive myoclonus. Mov Disord 1987; 2: 307–11

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Staedt J, Dewes D, Danos P, et al. Can chronic neuroleptic treatment promote sleep disturbances in elderly schizophrenic patients? Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2000; 15(2): 170–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Berman I, Zalma A, DuRand CJ, et al. Clozapine-induced myoclonic jerks and drop attacks. J Clin Psychiatry 1992; 53: 329–30

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Malow BA, Reese KB, Sato S, et al. Spectrum of EEG abnormalities during clozapine treatment. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1994; 91: 205–11

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Meltzer HY, Ranjan R. Valproic acid treatment of clozapine-induced myoclonus. Am J Psychiatry 1994; 151: 1246–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Bak TH, Bauer M, Schaub RT, et al. Myoclonus in patients treated with clozapine: a case series. J Clin Psychiatry 1995; 56: 418–22

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Barak Y, Levine J, Weisz R. Clozapine-induced myoclonus: two case reports [letter]. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1996; 16: 339–40

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Lu CS, Chu NS. Acute dystonic reaction with asterixis and myoclonus following metoclopramide therapy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1988; 51: 1002–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Eisele G. Neurologic complications of metoclopramide therapy [letter]. N Y State J Med 1988; 88: 332

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Ortí-Pareja M, Jiménez-Jiménez FJ, Vázquez A, et al. Drug-induced tardive syndromes. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 1999; 5: 59–65

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Burns R, Thomas DW, Barron VJ. Reversible encephalopathy possibly associated with bismuth subgallate ingestion. BMJ 1974; 1: 220–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Goule JP, Husson A, Fondimare A, et al. Encéphalopatie aux sels insolubles de bismuth [letter]. Nouv Presse Med 1975; 4: 1366

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Monseu G, Struelens M, Roland M. Bismuth encephalopathy. Acta Neurol Belg 1976; 76: 301–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Buge A, Rancurel G, Dechy H. Encéphalopathies myocloniques bismuthiques: formes évolutives, complications tardives, durables ou définitives: a propos de 41 cases. Rev Neurol (Paris) 1977; 133: 401–15

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Supino-Viterbo V, Sicard C, Risvegliato M, et al. Toxic encephalopathy due to ingestion of bismuth salts: clinical and EEG studies in 45 patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1977; 40: 748–52

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Cervello MA, Alfaro A, Antolín MA, et al. Encefalopatía mioclónica bismútica: a propósito de dos nuevas observaciones clínicas. Med Clin (Barc) 1982; 79: 137–40

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Nogué S, Más A, Parés A, et al. Encefalopatía mioelónica y convulsiva por bismuto: utilidad del tratamiento con dimercaprol. Med Clin (Barc) 1985; 84: 530–2

    Google Scholar 

  89. Sanz Gallen P, Nogue Xarau S. Intoxicatión por sales de bismuto. Med Clin (Barc) 1985; 84: 538–41

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Vidailhet M, Le TH, Wechsler B, et al. L’encephalopathie au bismuth n’a pas disparu. [letter]. Presse Med 1987; 16: 1054

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Góez-Jiménez J, Alvarez J, Boada-Rovira M, et al. Encelafopatía mioelónica por bismuto [letter]. Rev Clin Esp 1989; 184: 212

    Google Scholar 

  92. Molina JA, Calandre L, Bermejo F. Myoclonic encephalopathy due to bismuth salts: treatment with dimercaprol and analysis of CSF transmitters. Acta Neurol Scand 1989; 79: 200–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Molina JA, Calandre L, Bermejo F, et al. Encefalopatía mioelónica por sales de bismuto: eficacia del tratamiento con dimercaprol. Med Clin Barc 1989; 93: 20–2

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Mendelowitz PC, Hoffman RS, Weber S. Bismuth absorption and myoclonic encephalopathy during bismuth subsalicylate therapy. Ann Intern Med 1990; 112: 140–1

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Jungreis AC, Schaumburg HH. Encephalopathy from abuse of bismuth subsalicylate (Pepto-Bismol). Neurology 1993; 43: 1265

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Gordon MF, Abrams RI, Rubin DB, et al. Bismuth subsalicylate toxicity as a cause of prolonged encephalopathy with myoclonus. Mov Disord 1995; 10: 220–2

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Bouchon JP, Cottin Bouchon D. Une mamie pas si folle que cela…intoxication au bismuth. Rev Med Interne 2001; 22Suppl. 2: 245s–6s

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Eeg-Oleson O, Lindskog U. Acute intoxication with valproate [letter]. Lancet 1982; I: 1306

    Article  Google Scholar 

  99. Aguglia U, Gambardella A, Zappia M, et al. Negative myoclonus during valproate-related stupor: neurophysiological evidence of a cortical non-epileptic origin. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1995; 94: 103–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Wendland KL. Myoklonien nach gaben von carbamazepin. Nervenarzt 1968; 39: 231–3

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Aguglia U, Zappia M, Quattrone A. Carbamazepine-induced nonepileptic myoclonus in a child with benign epilepsy. Epilepsia 1987; 28: 515–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Dhuna A, Pascual-Leone A, Talwar D. Exacerbation of partial seizures and onset of nonepileptic myoclonus with carbamazepine. Epilepsia 1991; 32: 275–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Go T. Carbamazepine-induced involuntary movements in a girl with localization-related epilepsy. No To Hattatsu 1999; 31: 366–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Gottwald W. Transitorisches abheilen von psoriasisieffloreszenzen wherend hydantoinvergiftung mit seltener zentralnervoser Symptomatik. Dermatol Wochenschr 1968; 154: 241–51

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Chi WM, Chua KS, Kong KH. Phenytoin-induced asterixis: uncommon or under-diagnosed? Brain Inj 2000; 14: 847–50

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Reeves AL, So EL, Sharbrough FW, et al. Movement disorders associated with the use of gabapentin. Epilepsia 1996; 37: 988–90

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Janzsky J, Rasonyi G, Halasz I, et al. Disabling erratic myoclonus during lamotrigine therapy with high serum level: report of two cases. Clin Neuropharmacol 2000; 23: 86–9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  108. Glavina MJ, Robertshaw R. Myoclonic spasms following intrathecal morphine. Anaesthesia 1988; 43: 389–90

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Potter JM, Reid DB, Shaw RJ, et al. Myoclonus associated with treatment with high doses of morphine: the role of supplemental drugs. BMJ 1989; 299: 150–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Jayawardena B, Hill DJ. Myoclonic spasms after epidural diamorphine infusion. Anaesthesia 1991; 46: 473–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. De Conno F, Caraceni A, Martini C, et al. Hyperalgesia and myoclonus with intrathecal infusion of high-dose morphine. Pain 1991; 47: 337–9

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Franco ML, Berro MJ, Sáez JM, et al. Mioclonías de miembros inferiores como complicación de la morfina espinal. Rev Esp Anestesiol Reanim 1992; 39: 192–3

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Sjogren P, Jonsson T, Jensen NH, et al. Hyperalgesia and myoclonus in terminal cancer patients treated with continuous intravenous morphine. Pain 1993; 55: 93–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Cartwright PD, Hesse C, Jackson AO. Myoclonic spasms following intrathecal diamorphine. J Pain Symptom Manage 1993; 8: 492–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. De-Armendi AJ, Fahey M, Ryan JF. Morphine-induced myoclonic movements in a pediatric pain patient. Anesth Analg 1993; 77: 191–2

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Bowdle TA, Rooke GA. Postoperative myoclonus and rigidity after anesthesia with opioids. Anesth Analg 1994; 78: 783–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Kloke M, Bingel U, Seeber S. Complications of spinal opioid therapy: myoclonus, spastic muscle tone and spinal jerking. Support Care Cancer 1994; 2: 249–52

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Jacobsen LS, Olsen AK, Sjogren P, et al. Morphine-induced hyperalgesia, allodynia and myoclonus: new side-effects of morphine? Ugeskr Laeger 1995; 157: 3307–10

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Sjogren P, Thunedborg LP, Christrup L, et al. Is development of hyperalgesia, allodynia and myoclonus related to morphine metabolism during long-term administration? Six case histories. Acta Anaesthersiol Scand 1998; 42: 1070–5

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Twycross R. Opioid-induced myoclonus and seizures. J Pain Symptom Manage 1998; 15: 143–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Petzinger G, Mayer SA, Przedborski S. Fentanyl-induced dyskinesias [letter]. Mov Disord 1995; 10: 679–80

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Adair JC, el-Nachef A, Cutler P. Fentanyl neurotoxicity [letter]. Ann Emerg Med 1996; 27: 791–2

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Bruera E, Pereira J. Acute neuropsychiatric findings in a patient receiving fentanyl for cancer pain. Pain 1997; 69: 199–201

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Stueremburg HJ, Claassen J, Eggers C, et al. Acute adverse reaction to fentanyl in a 55 year old man. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2000; 69: 281–2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  125. Han PK, Arnold R, Bond G, et al. Myoclonus secondary to withdrawal from transdermal fentanyl: case report and literature review. J Pain Symptom Manage 2002; 23: 66–72

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Mancini I, Lossignol DA, Body JJ. Opioid switch to oral methadone in cancer pain. Curr Opin Oncol 2000; 12: 308–13

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Sharhill N, Davis MP, Walsh D, et al. Methadone-induced myoclonus in advanced cancer. Am J Hosp Palliat Care 2001; 18: 51–3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  128. Adair JC, Gilmore RL. Meperidine neurotoxicity after organ transplantation. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1994; 32: 325–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Reutens DC, Stewart-Wynne EG. Norpethidine induced myoclonus in a patient with renal failure. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1989; 52: 1450–1

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Lauterbach EC. Hiccup and apparent myoclonus after hydrocodone: review of the opiate-related hiccup and myoclonus literature. Clin Neuropharmacol 1999; 22: 87–92

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Ammenti A, Reither B, Muller-Wiefel DE. Chlorambucil neurotoxicity: report of two cases. Helv Paediatr Acta 1980; 35: 281–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. Byrne Jr TN, Moseley III TAE, Finer MA. Myoclonic seizures following chlorambucil overdose. Ann Neurol 1981; 9: 191–4

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. LaDelfa I, Bayer N, Myers R, et al. Chlorambucil-induced myoclonic seizures in an adult. J Clin Oncol 1985; 3: 1691–2

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Willye AR, Bayliff CD, Kovacs MJ. Myoclonus due to chlorambucil in two adults with lymphoma. Ann Pharmacother 1997; 31: 171–4

    Google Scholar 

  135. Martín M, Díaz-Rubio E, Casado A, et al. Prednimustine-induced myoclonus: a report of three cases. Acta Oncol 1994; 33: 81–2

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Monnerat C, Gander M, Leyvraz S. A rare case of prednimustine-induced myoclonus [letter]. J Natl Cancer Inst 1997; 89: 173–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Ezpeleta-Echavarri D, Muñoz-Blanco JL, Díaz-Otero F, et al. Mioclonías inducidas por prednimustina [letter]. Neurologia 1998; 13: 154–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Meloni G, Raucci U, Pinto RM, et al. Pretransplant conditioning with busulfan and cyclophosphamide in acute leukemia patients: neurological and electroencephalographic prospective study. Ann Oncol 1992; 3: 145–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Wengs WJ, Talwar D, Bernard J. Ifosfamide-induced nonconvulsive status epilepticus. Arch Neurol 1993; 50: 1104–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. New PS, Wells CE. Cerebral toxicity associated with massive intravenous penicillin therapy. Neurology 1965; 15: 1052–8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  141. Bllomer HA, Barton LJ, Maddock Jr RK. Penicillin-induced encephalopathy in uremic patients. JAMA 1967; 200: 121–3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  142. Lerner PI, Smith H, Weinstein L. Penicillin neurotoxicity. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1967; 145: 310–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. Cohill DF, Pezzi PJ, Greenberg SR, et al. Central nervous system toxicity secondary to massive dosis of penicillin ’G’ in the treatment of overwhelming infections. Am J Med Sci 1967; 254: 692–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  144. Conway N, Beck E, Somerville J. Penicillin encephalopathy. Postgrad Med J 1968; 44: 891–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  145. Kurtzman NA, Rogets PW, Harter HR. Neurotoxic reaction to penicillin and carbenicillin. JAMA 1970; 214: 1320–1

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Fossieck Jr B, Parker RH. Neurotoxicity during intravenous infusion of penicillin: a review. J Clin Pharmacol 1974; 14: 504–12

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Sackellares JC, Smith DB. Myoclonus with electrocerebral silence in a patient receiving penicillin. Arch Neurol 1979; 36: 857–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Kallay MC, Tabechian H, Riley GR, et al. Neurotoxicity due to ticarcillin in patient with renal failure [letter]. Lancet 1979; I: 608–9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  149. Slaker RA, Danielson B. Neurotoxicity associated with ceftazidime therapy in geriatric patients with renal dysfunction. Pharmacotherapy 1991; 11: 351–2

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  150. Klion AD, Kallsen J, Cowl CT, et al. Ceftazidime-related nonconvulsive status epilepticus. Arch Intern Med 1994; 154: 586–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. Uchihara T, Tsukagoshi H. Myoclonic activity associated with cefmetazole, with a review of neurotoxicity of cephalosporins. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 1988; 90: 369–71

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  152. Herishanu YO, Zlotnik M, Mostoslavsky M, et al. Cefuroxime-induced encephalopathy. Neurology 1998; 50: 1873–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  153. Jallon P, Fankhauser L, Du Pasquier R, et al. Severe but reversible encephalopathy associated with cefepime. Neurophysiol Clin 2000; 30: 383–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  154. Calandra GB, Brown KR, Grad LC, et al. Review of adverse experiences and tolerability in the first 2516 patients treated with imipenem/cilastatin. Am J Med 1985; 78(6A): 73–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  155. Frucht S, Eidelberg D. Imipenem-induced myoclonus. Mov Disord 1997; 12: 621–2

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  156. Park-Matsumoto YC, Tazawa T. Piperacillin-induced encephalopathy [letter]. J Neurol Sci 1996; 140: 141–2

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  157. Durand JM, Telle H, Quiles N, et al. Syndrome confusionnel, myoclonies et traitement par la pefloxacine. Ann Med Interne (Paris) 1993; 144: 495–6

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  158. Yashuda H, Yoshida A, Masuta Y, et al. Levofloxacin-induced neurological adverse effects such as convulsion, involuntary movement (tremor, myoclonus and chorea like), visual hallucination in two elderly patients. Nippon Ronen Igakkai Zasshi 1999; 36: 213–7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  159. Neau JP, Rogez R, Boissonnot L, et al. Accidents neurologiques de la piperazine. Acta Neurol Belg 1984; 84: 26–34

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  160. Yagi S, Moriya O, Nakajima M, et al. A case of tuberculous pleurisy associated with myoclonus and Quincke’s edema due to isoniazid and isoniazid sodium methanesulfonate. Kekkaku 1989; 64: 407–12

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  161. Schaumburg HH. Acyclovir: In: Spencer PS, Schaumburg HH, Ludolph AC, editors. Experimental and clinical neurotoxicology. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000: 135–6

    Google Scholar 

  162. Goldberg RJ, Huk M. Serotonin syndrome from trazodone and buspirone [letter]. Psychosomatics 1992; 33: 235–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  163. Ritchie EC, Bridenbaugh RH, Jabbari B. Acute generalized myoclonus following buspirone administration. J Clin Psychiatry 1988; 49: 242–3

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  164. Lee DS, Wong HA, Knoppert DC. Myoclonus associated with lorazepam therapy in very-low-birth-weight infants. Biol Neonate 1994; 66: 311–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  165. Magny JF, d’Allest AM, Nedelcoux H, et al. Midazolam and myoclonus in neonate. Eur J Pediatr 1994; 153: 389–90

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  166. Roth BA, Vinson DR, Kim S. Carisoprodol-induced myoclonic encephalopathy. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1998; 36: 609–12

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  167. Moore C. Oxazepam withdrawal syndrome [letter]. Med J Aust 1982; 2: 220

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  168. Melcor CS, Jain VK. Diazepam withdrawal syndrome: its prolonged and changing nature. CMAJ 1982; 127: 1093–6

    Google Scholar 

  169. Madigand M, Dien J, Pavin G, et al. Encephalopathie myoclonique probablement imputable a la propafenone [letter]. Presse Med 1988; 17: 538

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  170. Jeandel C, Bannwarth B, Trechot P, et al. Encephalopathie myoclonique a la propafenone. Therapie 1990; 45: 161–2

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  171. Chua TP, Farrell T, Lipkin DP. Myoclonus associated with propafenone [letter]. BMJ 1994; 308: 113

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  172. Ghika J, Goy JJ, Naegeli C, et al. Acute reversible ataxomyoclonic encephalopathy with flecainide therapy. Schweiz Arch Neurol Psychiatr 1994; 145: 4–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  173. Jeret JS, Somasundaram M, Asaikar S. Diltiazem-induced myoclonus. N Y State J Med 1992; 92: 447–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  174. Pedro-Botet ML, Bonal J, Caralps A. Nifedipine and myoclonic disorders [letter]. Nephron 1989; 51: 281

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  175. Lucas C, Soetaert G, Leys D, et al. Myoclonies au cours d’un traitement par buflomedil. Acta Clin Belg 1989; 44: 360–1

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  176. Fukuda T. Veratramine-induced myoclonus. Seishin Shinkeigaku Zasshi 1990; 92: 865–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  177. Bouly A, Nathan N, Feiss P. Propofol in myotonic dystrophy [letter]. Anaesthesia 1991; 46: 705

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  178. Hughes NJ, Lyons JB. Prolonged myoclonus and meningism following propofol. Can J Anaesth 1995; 42: 744–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  179. Gooding JM, Corssen G. Etomidate: an ultrashort-acting nonbarbiturate agent to anesthesia induction. Anesth Analg 1976; 55: 286–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  180. Kay B. Some experience of the use of etomidate in children. Acta Anaesthesiol Belg 1976; 27 Suppl.: 86–92

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  181. Dubois DJ, Bastenier GJ, Genicot C, et al. A comparative study of etomidate and methohexital as induction agents for analgesia anesthesia. Acta Anaesthesiol Belg 1976; 27 Suppl.: 187–95

    Google Scholar 

  182. Fameno CE, Odughesan CO. Further experience with etomidate. Can Anaesth Soc J 1978; 25: 130–2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  183. Ng AT. Prolonged myoclonic contractions after enflurane anesthesia. Can Anaesth Soc J 1980; 27: 502–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  184. Hudson R, Ethans CT. Alfathesin and enflurane: synergistic central nervous system excitation? Can Anaesth Soc J 1981; 28: 55–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  185. Kurtz D, Tempe JD, Weber M, et al. Electroclinical aspects of acute intoxication with chloralose [letter]. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1968; 24: 489

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  186. Cornette M, Franck G. Clinical and EEG features of acute drug intoxication with chloralose in eleven recent cases [letter]. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1981; 30: 374

    Google Scholar 

  187. Fox EJ, Villanueva R, Scutta HS. Myoclonus following spinal anesthesia. Neurology 1979; 29: 379–80

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  188. Schipior PG. An unusual case of antihistamine intoxication. J Pediatr 1967; 71: 589–91

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  189. Jacquesson M, Saudeau D, Pantin B, et al. Myoclonies imputables a une association de triprolidine, de pseudoephedrine et de paracetamol. Nouv Presse Med 1982; 11: 2298–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  190. Sica DA, Comstock TJ. Pseudoephedrine accumulation in renal failure. Am J Med Sci 1989; 298: 261–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  191. Mayeux R, Albert M, Jenike M. Physostigmine-induced myoclonus in Alzheimer’s disease. Neurology 1987; 37: 345–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  192. Korthals JK, Gieron-Korthals MA. Eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome with myoclonic jerks. J Fla Med Assoc 1990; 77: 1031–3

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  193. Baloh RW, Dietz J, Spooner JW. Myoclonus and ocular oscillations induced by L-tryptophan. Ann Neurol 1982; 11: 95–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  194. Bandelot JB, Mihout B. Encephalopathie myoclonique imputable au diclofenac [letter]. Nouv Presse Med 1978; 7: 1406

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  195. Alcalay M, Thomar P, Reboux JF, et al. Myoclonies au curs d’un traitement par le diclofenac. Sem Hop 1979; 55: 679–80

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  196. Ozer EA, Turker M, Bakiler AR, et al. Involuntary movements in infantile cobalamin deficiency appearing after treatment. Pediatr Neurol 2001; 25: 81–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  197. Van Sweden B, Kamphuisen HA. Cimetidine neurotoxicity. Eur Neurol 1984; 23: 300–5

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  198. Sternbach H. The serotonin syndrome. Am J Psychiatry 1991; 148: 705–13

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  199. Chechani V. Serotonin syndrome presenting as hypotonic coma and apnea: potentially fatal complications of selective serotonin receptor inhibitor therapy. Crit Care Med 2002; 30: 473–6

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  200. Dike GL. Triphasic waves in serotonin syndrome [letter]. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1997; 62: 200

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  201. Lejoyeux M, Rouillon F, Ades J. Prospective evaluation of the serotonin syndrome in depressed inpatients treated with clomipramine. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1993; 88: 369–71

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  202. Weiner AL, Tilden Jr FF, McKay Jr CA. Serotonin syndrome: case report and review of the literature. Conn Med 1997; 61(11): 717–21

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  203. Jahr JS, Pisto JD, Gitlin MC, et al. The serotonin syndrome in a patient receiving sertraline after an ankle block. Anesth Analg 1994; 79: 189–91

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  204. Skop BP, Finklestein JA, Mareth TR, et al. The serotonin syndrome associated with paroxetine, an over-the-counter cold remedy, and vascular disease. Am J Emerg Med 1994; 12: 642–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  205. Ghika-Schmid F, Ghika J, Vuadens P, et al. Acute reversible myoclonic encephalopathy associated with fluoxetine therapy. Mov Disord 1997; 12: 622–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  206. Bhatara VS, Magnus RD, Paul KL, et al. Serotonin syndrome induced by venlafaxine and fluoxetine: a case study in poly-pharmacy and potential pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic mechanisms. Ann Pharmacother 1998; 32: 432–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  207. Cavallazzi LO, Grezesiuk AK. Sindrome serotoninerguca associado ao uso de paroxetine: relate de un caso. Arq Neuropsiquiatr 1999; 57: 886–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  208. Mason PJ, Morris VA, Balcezak TJ. Serotonin syndrome: presentation of 2 cases and review of the literature. Medicine (Baltimore) 2000; 79: 201–9

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  209. Brendel DH, Bodkin JA, Yang JM. Massive sertraline overdose. Ann Emerg Med 2000; 36: 524–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  210. Manos GH. Possible serotonin syndrome associated with buspirone added to fluoxetine. Ann Pharmacother 2000; 34: 871–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  211. Bodner RA, Lynch T, Lewis L, et al. Serotonin syndrome. Neurology 1995; 45: 219–23

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  212. Loza B. A case of serotonin syndrome. Psychiatr Pol 1995; 29: 529–38

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  213. Nisijima K, Shimizu M, Abe T, et al. A case of serotonin syndrome induced by concomitant treatment with low-dose trazodone and amitriptyline and lithium. Int J Psychopharmacol 1996; 11: 289–90

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  214. Gillman PK. Possible serotonin syndrome with moclobemide and pethidine [letter]. Med J Aust 1995; 162: 554

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  215. Eisele Jr JH, Grigsby EJ, Dea G. Clonazepam treatment of myoclonic contractions associated with high-dose opioids: case report. Pain 1992; 51: 231–2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  216. Holdsworth MT, Adams VR, Chavez CM, et al. Continuous midazolam infusion for the management of morphine-induced myoclonus. Ann Pharmacother 1995; 29: 25–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  217. Mercadente S. Dantrolene treatment of opioid-induced myoclonus. Anesth Analg 1995; 81: 1307–8

    Google Scholar 

  218. Kolesnikov Y, Jain S, Wilson R, et al. Blockade of morphine-induced hindlimb myoclonic seizures in mice by ketamine. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1997; 56: 423–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  219. Lothman EW. Intravenous penicillin and myoclonus [letter]. Arch Neurol 1980; 37: 531

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  220. Munar-Ques M, Mulet Gutiérrez M, Cerda-Bibiloni JJ, et al. Encefalopatía penicilínica: estudio de 2 casos. Med Clin (Barc) 1983; 81: 632–3

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  221. Klawans HL, Carvey PM, Tanner CM, et al. Drug-induced myoclonus. Adv Neurol 1986; 43: 251–64

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  222. Weiner WJ, Carvey PM, Nausieda PA, et al. Dopaminergic antagonism of L-5-hydroxytryptophan-induced myoclonic jumping behavior. Neurology 1979; 29: 1622–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  223. Menon MK, Kodama CK, Kling AS, et al. An in vivo pharmacological method for the quantitative evaluation of the central effects of alpha-1-adrenoceptor agonists and antagonists. Neuropharmacology 1986; 25: 503–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  224. Lhermitte F, Peterfalvi M, Marteau R, et al. Analyse pharmacologique d’un cas de myoclonies d’intention et d’action postanoxiques. Rev Neurol (Paris) 1971; 124: 21–31

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  225. Giménez-Roldán S, Mateo D, Muradas V, et al. Clinical, biochemical, and pharmacological observations in patient with postasphyxic myoclonus: association with serotonin hyperactivity. Clin Neuropharmacol 1988; 11: 151–60

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  226. Van Woert MH, Magnussen I, Rosenbaum D, et al. Fluoxetine in the treatment of action myoclonus. Clin Neuropharmacol 1983; 6: 49–54

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  227. Klawans HL, Goetz CG, Weiner WJ. 5-hydroxytryptophan-induced myoclonus in guinea pigs and the possible role of serotonin in infantile spasms. Neurology 1973; 23: 1234–40

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  228. Chadwick D, Hallett M, Jenner P, et al. 5-hydroxytryptophan-induced myoclonus in guinea pigs: a physiological and pharmacological investigations. J Neurol Sci 1978; 35(1): 157–65

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  229. Volkman PH, Lorenz SA, Kindel GH, et al. L-5-hydroxytryptophan-induced myoclonus in guinea pigs: a model for the study of central serotonin-dopamine interaction. Neuropharmacology 1978; 17: 947–55

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  230. Luscombe G, Jenner P, Marsden CD. Myoclonus in guinea pigs is induced by indole-containing but not piperazine-containing 5-HT agonists. Life Sci 1982; 30: 1487–94

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  231. Luscombe G, Jenner P, Marsden CD. Alterations in brain 5HT and tryptamine content during indoleamine-induced myoclonus in guinea pigs. Biochem Pharmacol 1983; 32: 1857–64

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  232. Eison AS, Wright RN, Freeman RP, et al. 5-HT-dependent myoclonus in guinea pigs: mediation through 5-HT1A-5-HT2 receptor interaction. Brain Res Bull 1993; 30: 687–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  233. Pranzatelli MR, Tailor PT, Razi P. Brainstem serotonin receptors in the guinea pig: implications for myoclonus. Neuropharmacology 1993; 32: 209–15

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  234. Pappert EJ, Goetz CG, Stebbins GT, et al. 5-hydroxytryptophan-induced myoclonus guinea pigs: mediation through 5-HT1/2 receptor subtypes. Eur J Pharmacol 1998; 347: 51–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  235. Valin A, Cepeda C, Rey E, et al. Opposite effects of lorazepam on two kinds of myoclonus in the photosensitive Papio papio. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1981; 52: 647–51

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  236. Cepeda C, Valin A, Calderazzo L, et al. Myoclonies induites par certaines benzodiazepines chez le Papio papio: comparaison avec les myoclonies induites par la stimulation lumineuse intermittente. Rev Electroencephalogr Neurophysiol Clin 1982; 12: 32–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

Dr de Toledo is supported by a grant for “specific capacitation in movement disorders” of the Spanish Society of Neurology. The authors have no sources of funding or conflicts of interest directly relevant to the content of this review.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Medicine - Neurology, Hospital “Príncipe de Asturias”, Universidad de Alcalá, Alcalá de Henares, C-Corregidor José de Pasamonte, 3ΰ D, Madrid, 24, E-28030, Spain

    Félix Javier Jiménez-Jiménez, Inmaculada Puertas & Maria de Toledo-Heras

  2. Neuro-Magister S.L. Company, Madrid, Spain

    Félix Javier Jiménez-Jiménez & Maria de Toledo-Heras

Authors
  1. Félix Javier Jiménez-Jiménez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Inmaculada Puertas
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Maria de Toledo-Heras
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Félix Javier Jiménez-Jiménez.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Jiménez-Jiménez, F.J., Puertas, I. & de Toledo-Heras, M. Drug-Induced Myoclonus. CNS Drugs 18, 93–104 (2004). https://doi.org/10.2165/00023210-200418020-00003

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00023210-200418020-00003

Keywords

Search

Navigation