Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

A Review of Physical Activity Patterns in Pregnant Women and Their Relationship to Psychological Health

  • Review Article
  • Published:
Sports Medicine Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Regular physical activity contributes positively to physical and psychological health. Adverse consequences of inactivity may be an especially important problem among pregnant women. Up to 60% are inactive during pregnancy. This review found consistent evidence that physical activity is reduced during pregnancy; however, few investigators have sought to quantify physical activity patterns among pregnant women using well validated measures. Some of the barriers to physical activity during pregnancy, such as depression, anxiety and fatigue, have been shown to be attenuated by regular exercise performed by non-pregnant samples. There is a need to better understand the relationships between these factors and physical activity during pregnancy.

Available retrospective and prospective results suggest that both leisure time and work-related physical activities are decreased across pregnancy. Intensity and duration decrease both during pregnancy compared with pre-pregnancy and in the third trimester compared with the first. There is a need for well designed longitudinal investigations that document pregnancy-related changes in physical activity at frequent intervals during pregnancy using validated and more precise measures of physical activity.

Reductions in physical activity and a worsening mood are common during pregnancy. If the relationship between physical inactivity and mood disturbances is indeed observed and maintained during pregnancy, then decreases in physical activity in the third trimester would be expected to result in a worsening mood. In recent years, increased attention has been paid to antenatal mood disturbances, and this research has yielded a host of important findings. Prior correlational and experimental research with non-pregnant samples has demonstrated a consistent relationship between physical inactivity and mood disturbances. Whether this relationship occurs among pregnant women and/or is maintained as women progress during pregnancy is uncertain. Prior investigations have revealed that there is higher rate of mood disturbance during pregnancy than following pregnancy but little is known about the mechanisms that cause these mood disturbances. It is important to better understand changes in mood with pregnancy because mood disturbances can have major negative consequences for a pregnant woman. The major adverse consequences of depression among pregnant women are largely the same as those of non-pregnant individuals. Only six investigations have quantified the relationship between changes in physical activity and changes in mood during pregnancy. The available evidence suggests that inactivity is associated with worse mood. Additional research into this topic is warranted due to the limited number of published papers and the design and methodology limitations of these investigations.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Table I
Table II

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Manufacturing Technology Inc.,from Actigraph,LLC,Fort Walton Beach,Florida,USA,is a uniaxial accelerometer device whose sensor is configured as a cantilever beam and sensitive to vertical direction.

References

  1. US Department of Health and Human Services. Healthy people 2010: conference edition. Washington, DC: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2000

    Google Scholar 

  2. Goldenberg RL, Cliver SP, Bronstein J, et al. Bed rest in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1994; 84: 131–136

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Crowther CA. Hospitalisation and best rest for multiple pregnancy. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2001; 1: CD000110

    Google Scholar 

  4. Biolo G, Heer M, Narici M, et al. Microgravity as a model of ageing. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2003; 6: 31–40

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Lokey EA, Tran ZV, Wells CL, et al. Effects of physical exercise on pregnancy outcomes: a meta-analytic review. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1991; 23: 1234–1239

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Artal R. Exercise: the alternative therapeutic intervention for gestational diabetes. Clin Obstet Gynecol 2003; 46: 479–487

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Clapp III JF, Lopez B, Harcar-Sevcik R. Neonatal behavioral profile of the offspring of women who continued to exercise regularly throughout pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1999; 180: 91–94

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Guidelines for exercising while pregnant. Obstet Gynecol 2002; 99: 171–173

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. American College of Sports Medicine. Guidelines for exercise testing and prescription. 6th ed. Philadelphia (PA): Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2000

    Google Scholar 

  10. Zhang J, Savitz DA. Exercise during pregnancy among US women. Ann Epidemiol 1996; 6: 53–59

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Evenson KR, Savitz DA, Huston SL. Leisure-time physical activity among pregant women in the US. Pediatr Perinat Epidemiol 2004; 18: 400–407

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Bungum TJ, Peaslee DL, Jackson AW, et al. Exercise during pregnancy and type of delivery in nulliparae. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs 2000; 29: 258–264

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. DaCosta D, Rippen N, Dritsa M, et al. Self-reported leisure time physical activity during pregnancy and relationship to psychological well-being. J Psychosom Obstet Gynaecol 2003; 24: 111–119

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Goodwin A, Astbury J, McMeeken J. Body image and psychological well-being in pregnancy: a comparison of exercisers and non-exercisers. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 2000; 40: 443–447

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Koniak-Griffin D. Aerobic exercise, psychological well-being, and physical discomforts during adolescent pregnancy. Res Nurs Health 1994; 17: 253–263

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Poudevigne MS, O’Connor PJ. Physical activity, mood, and self-esteem during pregnancy. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2005; 37: 1374–1380

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Avery ND, Leon AS, Kopher RA. Effects of a partially home-based exercise program for women with gestational diabetes. Obstet Gynecol 1997; 89: 10–15

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Clapp III JF, Stepanchak W, Tomaselli J, et al. Portal vein blood flow: effects of pregnancy, gravity, and exercise. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000; 183: 167–172

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Collings C, Curet LB, Mullin JP. Maternal and fetal responses to a maternal aerobic exercise program. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1983; 145: 702–707

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. de Groot LC, Boekholt HA, Spaaij CK, et al. Energy balances of healthy Dutch women before and during pregnancy: limited scope for metabolic adaptations in pregnancy. Am J Clin Nutr 1994; 59: 827–832

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Kulpa PJ, White BM, Visscher R. Aerobic exercise in pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1987; 156: 1395–1403

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Marquez-Sterling S, Perry AC, Kaplan TA, et al. Physical and psychological changes with vigorous exercise in sedentary primigravidae. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32: 58–62

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. South-Paul JE, Rajagopal KR, Tenholder MF. The effect of participation in a regular exercise program upon aerobic capacity during pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1988; 71: 175–179

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Yeo S, Steele NM, Chang MC, et al. Effect of exercise on blood pressure in pregnant women with a high risk of gestational hypertensive disorders. J Reprod Med 2000; 45: 293–298

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Saurel-Cubizolles MJ, Kaminski M. Pregnant women’s working condition and their changes during pregnancy: a national study in France. Br J Ind Med 1987; 44: 236–243

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Berkowitz GS, Kelsey JL, Holford TR. Physical activity and the risk of spontaneous preterm delivery. J Reprod Med 1983; 28: 581–588

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Ning Y, Williams MA, Dempsey JC, et al. Correlates of recreational physical activity in early pregnancy. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2003; 13: 385–392

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Clissold TL, Hopkins WG, Seddon RJ. Lifestyle behaviours during pregnancy. N Z Med J 1991; 104: 111–113

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Zeanah M, Schlosser SP. Adherence to ACOG guidelines on exercise during pregnancy: effect on pregnancy outcome. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs 1993; 22: 329–335

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Jarrett JC, Spellacy WN. Jogging during pregnancy: an improved outcome? Obstet Gynecol 1983; 61: 705–709

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Beilock SL, Feltz DL, Pivarnik JM. Training patterns of athlete during pregnancy and postpartum. Res Q Exerc Sport 2001; 72: 39–46

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Dale E, Mullinax KM, Bryan DH. Exercise during pregnancy: effects on the fetus. Can J Appl Sport Sci 1982; 7: 98–103

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. US Department of Health and Human Services. Physical activity and health: a report of the surgeon’s general. Atlanta (GA): US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, 1996

    Google Scholar 

  34. Hatch MC, Shu XO, McLean DE, et al. Maternal exercise during pregnancy, physical fitness and fetal growth. Am J Epidemiol 1993; 137: 1105–1114

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Hinton PS, Olson CM. Predictors of pregnancy-associated change in physical activity in rural white population. Matern Child Health J 2001; 5: 7–14

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Agarwal S, Agarwal A, Agarwal KN, et al. Physical activity and pregnancy outcome in rural undernourished women. Indian Pediatr 2001; 38: 1017–1022

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Dufour DL, Reina JC, Spurr GB. Energy intake and expenditure of free-living, pregnant Columbian women in an urban setting. Am J Clin Nutr 1999; 70: 269–276

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Grisso JA, Main DM, Chiu G, et al. Effects of physical activity and life style factors on uterine contractions frequency. Am J Perinatol 1992; 9: 489–492

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Langhoff-Roos J, Lindmark G, Kylberg E, et al. Energy intake and physical activity during pregnancy in relation to maternal fat accretion and infant birthweight. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1987; 94: 1178–1185

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Sternfeld B, Quesenberry CP, Eskenazi B, et al. Exercise during pregnancy and pregnancy outcome. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1995; 27: 634–640

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Clapp III JF. The course of labor after endurance exercise during pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1990; 163: 1799–1805

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Rao S, Kanade A, Margetts BM, et al. Maternal activity in relation to birth size in rural India. The Pune maternal nutrition study. Eur J Clin Nutr 2003; 57: 531–542

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Clapp III JF, Wesley M, Sleamaker RH. Thermoregulatory and metabolic responses to jogging prior to and during pregnancy. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1987; 19: 124–130

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Clapp III JF, Capeless EL. Neonatal morphometrics after endurance exercise during pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynec 1990; 163: 1805–1811

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Clapp III JF, Capeless EL. The VO2max of recreational athletes before and after pregnancy. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1991; 23: 1128–1133

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Rabkin CS, Anderson HR, Bland M, et al. Maternal activity and birth weight: a prospective, population-based study. Am J Epidemiol 1990; 131: 522–531

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Hatch MC, Ji BT, Shu XO, et al. Do standing, lifting, climbing, or long hours of working during pregnancy have an effect during fetal growth? Epidemiology 1997; 8: 530–536

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Kimm SYS, Glynn NW, Kriska AM, et al. Decline in physical activity in black girls and white girls during adolescence. N Engl J Med 2002; 347: 709–715

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Alderman BW, Zhao H, Holt VL, et al. Maternal physical activity in pregnancy and infant size for gestational age. Ann Epidemiol 1998; 8: 513–519

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Rutkowska E, Lepecka-Klusek C. The role of physical activity in preparing women for pregnancy and delivery in Poland. Health Care Women Int 2002; 23: 919–923

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Stein AD, Rivera JM, Pivarnik JM. Measuring energy expenditure in habitually active and sedentary pregnant women. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003; 35: 1441–1446

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. van Raaij JMA, Schonk CM, Vermaat-Miedema SH, et al. Energy cost of physical activity throughout pregnancy and the first year postpartum in Dutch women with sedentary lifestyles. Am J Clin Nutr 1990; 52: 234–239

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Blair SN. Effects of physical inactivity and obesity on morbidity and mortality: current evidence and research issues. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1999; 31: 46S–62S

    Google Scholar 

  54. Bouchard C, Tremblay A, LeBlanc C, et al. A method to assess energy expenditure in children and adults. Am J Clin Nutr 1983; 37: 461–467

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Blair SN, Haskell WL, Ho P, et al. Assessment of habitual physical activity by a seven-day recall in a community survey and controlled experiments. Am J Epidemiol 1985; 122: 794–804

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Horns PM, Ratcliffe LP, Leggett JC, et al. Pregnancy outcomes among active and sedentary primiparous women. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs 1996; 25: 49–54

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Leiferman JA, Evenson KR. The effect of regular leisure physical activity on birth outcomes. Matern Child Health J 2003; 7: 59–64

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Steiner M. Postpartum psychiatric disorders. Can J Psychiatry 1990; 35: 89–95

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Josefsson A, Berg G, Nordin C, et al. Prevalence of depressive symptoms in late pregnancy and postpartum. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2001; 80: 251–255

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Lee D, Yip A, Chiu H, et al. A psychiatric epidemiological study of postpartum Chinese women. Am J Psychiatry 2001; 158: 220–226

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. O’Hara MW, Neunaber DJ, Zekoski EM. Prospective study of postpartum depression: prevalence, course, and predictive factors. J Abnorm Psychol 1984; 93: 158–171

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Pop VJ, Essed GG, de Geus CA, et al. Prevalence of postpartum depression: or is it post-puerperium depression? Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1993; 7: 354–358

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Stuart S, Couser G, Schilder K, et al. Postpartum anxiety and depression: onset and comorbidity in a community sample. J Nerv Ment Dis 1998; 186: 420–424

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Kendell RE, Chalmers JC, Platz C. Epidemiology of puerperal psychoses. Br J Psychiatry 1987; 150: 662–673

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. DaCosta D, Larouche J, Dritsa M, et al. Psychosocial correlates of prepartum and postpartum depressed mood. J Affect Disord 2000; 59: 31–40

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Evans J, Heron J, Francomb H, et al. Cohort study of depressed mood during pregnancy and after childbirth. BMJ 2001; 323: 257–260

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Field T, Diego M, Hernandez-Reif M, et al. Pregnancy anxiety and comorbid depression and anger: effects on the fetus and neonate. Depress Anxiety 2003; 17: 140–151

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Chou FH, Lin LL, Cooney AT, et al. Psychosocial factors related to nausea, vomiting, and fatigue in early pregnancy. J Nurs Scholarsh 2003; 35: 119–125

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Zib M, Lim L, Walters WA. Symptoms during normal pregnancy: a prospective controlled study. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 1999; 39: 401–410

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Reeves N, Potempa K, Gallo A, et al. Fatigue in early pregnancy: an exploratory study. J Nurse Midwifery 1991; 36: 303–309

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Pugh LC, Milligan RA. Patterns of fatigue during childbearing. Appl Nurs Res 1995; 8: 140–146

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Milligan R, Kitzman H. Fatigue during pregnancy. A paper presented at nursing research across the life span: methods, issues and interventions; 1992 Mar 2; Baltimore. Baltimore (MD): John Hopkins University and University of Maryland at Baltimore, 1992

    Google Scholar 

  73. Elek SM, Hudson DB, Fleck MO. Expectant parents’ experience with fatigue and sleep during pregnancy. Birth 1997; 24: 49–54

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Lee KA, Zaffke M. Longitudinal changes in fatigue and energy during pregnancy and the postpartum period. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs 1999; 28: 183–191

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Watson JP, Elliott SA, Rugg AJ, et al. Psychiatric disorder in pregnancy and the first postnatal year. Br J Psychiatry 1984; 144: 453–462

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Wisner KL, Peindl K, Hanusa BH. Relationship of psychiatric illness to childbearing status: a hospital-based epidemiologic study. J Affect Disord 1993; 28: 39–50

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Hedegaard M, Henriksen TB, Sabroe S, et al. The relationship between psychological distress during pregnancy and birth weight for gestational age. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1996; 75: 32–39

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Pagel MD, Smilkstein G, Regen H, et al. Psychosocial influences on new born outcomes: a controlled prospective study. Soc Sci Med 1990; 30: 597–604

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Hallbreich U. Anxiety disorders in women: a developmental and lifecycle perspective. Depress Anxiety 2003; 17: 107–110

    Article  Google Scholar 

  80. Teixeira JM, Fisk NM, Glover V. Association between maternal anxiety in pregnancy and increased uterine artery resistance index: cohort based study. BMJ 1999; 318: 153–157

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Desai HD, Jann MW. Major depression in women: a review of the literature. J Am Pharm Assoc (Wash) 2000; 40: 525–537

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Leifer M. Psychological changes accompanying pregnancy and motherhood. Genet Soc Gen Psychol Monogr 1977; 95: 55–96

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Power TG, Parke RD. Social network factors and the transition to parenthood. Sex Roles 1984; 10: 949–972

    Article  Google Scholar 

  84. Fleming AS, Corter C. Factors influencing maternal responsiveness in humans: usefulness of an animal model. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1988; 13: 189–212

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Moore DS. The body image in pregnancy. J Nurse Midwifery 1978; 22: 17–27

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Ostlund H, Keller E, Hurd YL. Estrogen receptor gene expression in relation to neuropsychiatric disorders. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2003; 1007: 54–63

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Sherwin BB. Progestogens used in menopause. Side effects, mood and quality of life. J Reprod Med 1999; 44: 227S–232S

    Google Scholar 

  88. Bethea CL, Pecins-Thompson M, Schutzer WE, et al. Ovarian steroids and serotonin neural function. Mol Neurobiol 1998; 18: 87–123

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Steiner M, Dunn E, Born L. Hormones and mood: from menarche to menopause and beyond. J Affect Disord 2003; 74: 67–83

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Nott PN, Franklin M, Armitage C, et al. Hormonal changes and mood in the puerperium. Br J Psychiatry 1976; 128: 379–383

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Harris B, Lovett L, Newcombe RG, et al. Maternity blues and major endocrine changes: Cardiff puerperal mood and hormone study II. BMJ 1994; 308: 949–953

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Parry BL, Sorenson DL, Meliska CJ, et al. Hormonal basis for mood and postpartum disorders. Women Health 2003; 3: 230–235

    Google Scholar 

  93. Goodwin RD. Association between physical activity and mental disorders among adults in the United States. Prev Med 2003; 36: 698–703

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Brown WJ, Mishra G, Lee C, et al. Leisure time physical activity in Australian women: relationship with well being and symptoms. Res Q Exerc Sport 2000; 71: 206–216

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Stewart AL, Hays RD, Wells KB, et al. Long-term functioning and well-being outcomes associated with physical activity and exercise in patients with chronic conditions in the Medical Outcomes Study. J Clin Epidemiol 1994; 47: 719–730

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Dunn AL, Trivedi MH, O’Neal HA. Physical activity dose-response effects on outcomes of depression and anxiety. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001; 33: 587S–597S

    Article  Google Scholar 

  97. Backmand H, Kaprio J, Kujala U, et al. Influence of physical activity on depression and anxiety of former elite athletes. Int J Sports Med 2003; 24: 609–619

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Camacho TC, Roberts RE, Lazarus NB, et al. Physical activity and depression: evidence from the Alameda County Study. Am J Epidemiol 1991; 134: 220–231

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Farmer RF. Depressive symptoms as a function of trait anxiety and impulsivity. J Clin Psychol 1988; 54: 129–135

    Article  Google Scholar 

  100. Hassmen P, Koivula N, Uutela A. Physical exercise and psychological well-being: a population study in Finland. Prev Med 2000; 30: 17–25

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Mobily KE, Rubenstein LM, Lemke JH, et al. Walking and depression in a cohort of older adults: the IOWA 65+ rural health study. J Aging Phys Act 1996; 4: 119–135

    Google Scholar 

  102. Paffenbarger RS, Lee IM, Leung R. Physical activity and personal characteristics associated with depression and suicide in American college men. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1994; 377: 16S–22S

    Article  Google Scholar 

  103. Stephens T. Physical activity and mental health in the United States and Canada: evidence from four population surveys. Prev Med 1988; 17: 35–47

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Blumenthal JA, Babyak MA, Moore KA, et al. Effects of exercise training on older patients with major depression. Arch Intern Med 1999; 159: 2349–2356

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Broocks A, Bandelow B, Pekrun G, et al. Comparison of aerobic exercise, clomipramine, and placebo in the treatment of panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1998; 155: 603–609

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Fulcher KY, White PD. Randomised controlled trial of graded exercise in patients with the chronic fatigue syndrome. BMJ 1997; 314: 1647–1652

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Symons-Downs D, Hausenblas HA. Exercising for two: examining pregnant women’s second trimester exercise intention and behavior using the framework of the theory of planned behavior. Women Health 2004; 13: 222–228

    Google Scholar 

  108. Abraham S, Taylor A, Conti J. Postnatal depression, eating, exercise, and vomiting before and during pregnancy. Int J Eat Disord 2001; 29: 482–487

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Wallace AM, Boyer DB, Dan A, et al. Aerobic exercise, maternal self-esteem and physical discomforts during pregnancy. J Nurse Midwifery 1986; 31: 255–262

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Williams A, Reilly T, Campbell I, et al. Investigation of changes in responses to exercise and in mood during pregnancy. Ergonomics 1988; 31: 1539–1549

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Diener E. Subjective well-being. Psychol Bull 1984; 95: 542–575

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Beck CT. Revision of the postpartum depression predictors inventory. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs 2002; 31: 394–402

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Casanueva E, Labastida J, Sanz C, et al. Depression and body fat deposition in Mexican pregnant adolescents. Arch Med Res 2000; 31: 48–52

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Klerman LV. Adolescent pregnancy in the United States. Int J Adolesc Med Health 2002; 14: 91–96

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Fox KR. Self-esteem, self-perceptions, and exercise. Int J Sport Psychol 2000; 31: 228–240

    Google Scholar 

  116. Hayden RM, Allen GJ. Relationship between aerobic exercise, anxiety, and depression: convergent validation by knowledgeable informants. J Sports Med 1984; 24: 69–74

    CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Drs Cureton, Dishman and Olejnik at the University of Georgia for their helpful assistance. The authors report no conflicts of interest relevant to the contents of this review. The authors were supported in part by a grant from the College of Education at the University of Georgia and National Institutes of Health grant # 5R01NR008131-02.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Health Care Management Department, Clayton State University, 2000 Clayton State Blvd, Morrow, Athens, Georgia, 30260, USA

    Melanie S. Poudevigne

  2. Kinesiology Department, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA

    Patrick J. O’Connor

Authors
  1. Melanie S. Poudevigne
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Patrick J. O’Connor
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Melanie S. Poudevigne.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Poudevigne, M.S., O’Connor, P.J. A Review of Physical Activity Patterns in Pregnant Women and Their Relationship to Psychological Health. Sports Med 36, 19–38 (2006). https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200636010-00003

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200636010-00003

Keywords

Search

Navigation