Abstract
Some of the physiological changes associated with the taper and their relationship with athletic performance are now known. Since the 1980s a number of studies have examined various physiological responses associated with the cardiorespiratory, metabolic, hormonal, neuromuscular and immunological systems during the pre-event taper across a number of sports. Changes in the cardiorespiratory system may include an increase in maximal oxygen uptake, but this is not a necessary prerequisite for taper-induced gains in performance. Oxygen uptake at a given submaximal exercise intensity can decrease during the taper, but this response is more likely to occur in less-skilled athletes. Resting, maximal and submaximal heart rates do not change, unless athletes show clear signs of overreaching before the taper. Blood pressure, cardiac dimensions and ventilatory function are generally stable, but submaximal ventilation may decrease. Possible haematological changes include increased blood and red cell volume, haemoglobin, haematocrit, reticulocytes and haptoglobin, and decreased red cell distribution width. These changes in the taper suggest a positive balance between haemolysis and erythropoiesis, likely to contribute to performance gains.
Metabolic changes during the taper include: a reduced daily energy expenditure; slightly reduced or stable respiratory exchange ratio; increased peak blood lactate concentration; and decreased or unchanged blood lactate at submaximal intensities. Blood ammonia concentrations show inconsistent trends, muscle glycogen concentration increases progressively and calcium retention mechanisms seem to be triggered during the taper. Reduced blood creatine kinase concentrations suggest recovery from training stress and muscle damage, but other biochemical markers of training stress and performance capacity are largely unaffected by the taper. Hormonal markers such as testosterone, cortisol, testosterone: cortisol ratio, 24-hour urinary cortisol: cortisone ratio, plasma and urinary catecholamines, growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor-1 are sometimes affected and changes can correlate with changes in an athlete’s performance capacity.
From a neuromuscular perspective, the taper usually results in markedly increased muscular strength and power, often associated with performance gains at the muscular and whole body level. Oxidative enzyme activities can increase, along with positive changes in single muscle fibre size, metabolic properties and contractile properties. Limited research on the influence of the taper on athletes’ immune status indicates that small changes in immune cells, immunoglobulins and cytokines are unlikely to compromise overall immunological protection.
The pre-event taper may also be characterised by psychological changes in the athlete, including a reduction in total mood disturbance and somatic complaints, improved somatic relaxation and self-assessed physical conditioning scores, reduced perception of effort and improved quality of sleep. These changes are often associated with improved post-taper performances. Mathematical models indicate that the physiological changes associated with the taper are the result of a restoration of previously impaired physiological capacities (fatigue and adaptation model), and the capacity to tolerate training and respond effectively to training undertaken during the taper (variable dose-response model). Finally, it is important to note that some or all of the described physiological and psychological changes associated with the taper occur simultaneously, which underpins the integrative nature of relationships between these changes and performance enhancement.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Bonifazi M, Sardella F, Luppo C. Preparatory versus main competitions: differences in performances, lactate responses and pre-competition plasma cortisol concentrations in elite male swimmers. Eur J Appl Physiol 2000; 82: 368–73
Cavanaugh DJ, Musch KI. Arm and leg power of elite swimmers increase after taper as measured by biokinetic variable resistance machines. J Swimming Res 1989; 5: 7–10
Costill DL, King DS, Thomas R, et al. Effects of reduced training on muscular power in swimmers. Phys Sportsmed 1985; 13: 94–101
Costill DL, Thomas R, Robergs A, et al. Adaptations to swimming training: influence of training volume. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1991; 23: 371–7
D’Acquisto LJ, Bone M, Takahashi S, et al. Changes in aerobic power and swimming economy as a result of reduced training volume. In: MacLaren D, Reilly T, Lees A, editors. Biomechanics and medicine in swimming: swimming science VI. London: E & FN Spon, 1992: 201–5
Hooper SL, Mackinnon LT, Ginn EM. Effects of three tapering techniques on the performance, forces and psychometric measures of competitive swimmers. Eur J Appl Physiol 1998; 78: 258–63
Johns RA, Houmard JA, Kobe RW, et al. Effects of taper on swim power, stroke distance and performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1992; 24: 1141–6
Mujika I, Busso T, Lacoste L, et al. Modeled responses to training and taper in competitive swimmers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1996; 28: 251–8
Mujika I, Chatard JC, Busso T, et al. Effects of training on performance in competitive swimming. Can J Appl Physiol 1995; 20: 395–406
Mujika I, Chatard J-C, Geyssant A. Effects of training and taper on blood leucocyte populations in competitive swimmers: relationships with cortisol and performance. Int J Sports Med 1996; 17: 213–7
Mujika I, Chatard J-C, Padilla S, et al. Hormonal responses to training and its tapering off in competitive swimmers: relationships with performance. Eur J Appl Physiol 1996; 74: 361–6
Mujika I, Goya A, Ruiz E, et al. Physiological and performance responses to a 6-day taper in middle-distance runners: influence of training frequency. Int J Sports Med 2002; 23: 367–73
Mujika I, Padilla S, Pyne D. Swimming performance changes during the final 3 weeks of training leading to the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games. Int J Sports Med 2002; 23: 582–7
Raglin JS, Koceja DM, Stager JM. Mood, neuromuscular function, and performance during training in female swimmers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1996; 28: 372–7
Stone MH, Josey J, Hunter G, et al. Different taper lengths: effects on weightlifting performance. Proceedings of the Overtraining and Overreaching in Sport International Conference; 1996 Jul 14–17, Memphis, 59
Taylor SR, Rogers GG, Driver HS. Effects of training volume on sleep, psychological, and selected physiological profiles of elite female swimmers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1997; 29: 688–93
Trappe S, Costill D, Thomas R. Effect of swim taper on whole muscle and single fiber contractile properties. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32: 48–56
Houmard JA. Impact of reduced training on performance in endurance athletes. Sports Med 1991; 12: 380–93
Houmard JA, Johns RA. Effects of taper on swim performance: practical implications. Sports Med 1994; 17: 224–32
Mujika I. The influence of training characteristics and tapering on the adaptation in highly trained individuals: a review. Int J Sports Med 1998; 19: 439–46
Mujika I, Padilla S. Scientific bases for precompetition tapering strategies. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003; 35: 1182–7
Neufer PD. The effect of detraining and reduced training on the physiological adaptations to aerobic exercise training. Sports Med 1989; 8: 302–21
Neary JP, Bhambhani YN, McKenzie DC. Effects of different stepwise reduction taper protocols on cycling performance. Can J Appl Physiol 2003; 28: 576–87
Neary JP, Martin TP, Quinney HA. Effects of taper on endurance cycling capacity and single muscle fiber properties. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003; 35: 1875–81
Kubukeli ZN, Noakes TD, Dennis SC. Training techniques to improve endurance exercise performances. Sports Med 2002; 32: 489–509
Mujika I, Goya A, Padilla S, et al. Physiological responses to a 6-day taper in middle-distance runners: influence of training intensity and volume. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32: 511–7
Pyne D. A model 14 day taper: the transition from training to racing. Aust Swim Coach 1995; 11: 28–31
Reaburn P. Tapering. Sports Coach 1998; 21: 30–1
Rushall BS. Tapering considerations for big meets. Aust Swim Coach 1997; 13: 56–63
Shepley B, MacDougall JD, Cipriano N, et al. Physiological effects of tapering in highly trained athletes. J Appl Physiol 1992; 72: 706–11
Van Handel PJ, Katz A, Troup JP, et al. Oxygen consumption and blood lactic acid response to training and taper. In: Ungerechts BE, Reischle K, Wilke K, editors. Swimming science V. Champaign (IL): Human Kinetics, 1988: 269–75
Houmard JA, Costill DL, Mitchell JB, et al. Reduced training maintains performance in distance runners. Int J Sports Med 1990; 11: 46–52
Jeukendrup AE, Hesselink MKC, Snyder AC, et al. Physiological changes in male competitive cyclists after two weeks of intensified training. Int J Sports Med 1992; 13: 534–41
McConell GK, Costill DL, Widrick JJ, et al. Reduced training volume and intensity maintain aerobic capacity but not performance in distance runners. Int J Sports Med 1993; 14: 33–7
Houmard JA, Scott BK, Justice CL, et al. The effects of taper on performance in distance runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1994; 26: 624–31
Zarkadas PC, Carter JB, Banister EW. Modelling the effect of taper on performance, maximal oxygen uptake, and the anaerobic threshold in endurance triathletes. Adv Exp Med Biol 1995; 393: 179–86
Banister EW, Carter JB, Zarkadas PC. Training theory and taper: validation in triathlon athletes. Eur J Appl Physiol 1999; 79: 182–91
Rietjens GJWM, Keizer HA, Kuipers H, et al. A reduction in training volume and intensity for 21 days does not impair performance in cyclists. Br J Sports Med 2001; 35: 431–4
Dressendorfer RH, Petersen SR, Moss Lovshin SE, et al. Performance enhancement with maintenance of resting immune status after intensified cycle training. Clin J Sport Med 2002; 12: 301–7
Dressendorfer RH, Petersen SR, Moss Lovshin SE, et al. Mineral metabolism in male cyclists during high-intensity endurance training. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2002; 12: 63–72
Margaritis I, Palazetti S, Rousseau A-S, et al. Antioxidant supplementation and tapering exercise improve exercise-induced antioxidant response. J Am Coll Nutr 2003; 22: 147–56
Houmard JA, Costill DL, Mitchell JB, et al. Testosterone, Cortisol, and creatine kinase levels in male distance runners during reduced training. Int J Sports Med 1990; 11: 41–5
Hopkins WG, Hawley JA, Burke LM. Design and analysis of research on sport performance enhancement. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1999; 31: 472–85
Stewart AM, Hopkins WG. Consistency of swimming performance within and between competitions. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32: 997–1001
Hopkins WG, Hewson DJ. Variability of competitive performance of distance runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001; 33: 1588–92
Houmard JA, Kirwan JP, Flynn MG, et al. Effects of reduced training on submaximal and maximal running responses. Int J Sports Med 1989; 10: 30–3
Haykowsky MJ, Smith DJ, Malley L, et al. Effects of short term altitude training and tapering on left ventricular morphology in elite swimmers. Can J Cardiol 1998; 14: 678–81
Flynn MG, Pizza FX, Boone Jr JB, et al. Indices of training stress during competitive running and swimming seasons. Int J Sports Med 1994; 15: 21–6
Hooper SL, Mackinnon LT, Howard A. Physiological and psychometric variables for monitoring recovery during tapering for major competition. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1999; 31: 1205–10
Achten J, Jeukendrup AE. Heart rate monitoring: applications and limitations. Sports Med 2003; 33: 517–38
Martin DT, Andersen MB. Heart rate-perceived exertion relationship during training and taper. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2000; 40: 201–8
Lehmann M, Baumgartl P, Wiesenack C, et al. Training-overtraining: influence of a defined increase in training volume vs training intensity on performance, catecholamines and some metabolic parameters in experienced middle- and long-distance runners. Eur J Appl Physiol 1992; 64: 169–77
Lehmann M, Deickhuth HH, Gendrisch G, et al. Training-overtraining: a prospective experimental study with experienced middle- and long-distance runners. Int J Sports Med 1991; 12: 444–52
Neary JP, Martin TP, Reid DC, et al. The effects of a reduced exercise duration taper programme on performance and muscle enzymes of endurance cyclists. Eur J Appl Physiol 1992; 65: 30–6
Burke ER, Falsetti HL, Feld RD, et al. Blood testing to determine overtraining in swimmers. Swimming Tech 1982; 18: 29–33
Casoni I, Borsetto C, Cavicchi A, et al. Reduced hemoglobin concentration and red cell hemoglobinization in Italian marathon and ultramarathon runners. Int J Sports Med 1985; 6: 176–9
Guglielmini C, Casoni I, Patracchini M, et al. Reduction of Hb levels during the racing season in nonsideropenic professional cyclists. Int J Sports Med 1989; 10: 352–6
Hallberg L, Magnusson B. The etiology of ‘sports anemia’. Acta Med Scand 1984; 216: 145–8
Pizza FX, Flynn MG, Boone JB, et al. Serum haptoglobin and ferritin during a competitive running and swimming season. Int J Sports Med 1997; 18: 233–7
Rushall BS, Busch JD. Hematological responses to training in elite swimmers. Can J Appl Sports Sci 1980; 5: 164–9
Yoshimura H, Inove T, Yamada T. Anemia during hard physical training (sports anemia) and its causal mechanism with special reference to protein nutrition. World Rev Nutr Diet 1980; 35: 1–86
Yamamoto Y, Mutoh Y, Miyashita M. Hematological and biochemical indices during the tapering period of competitive swimmers. In: Ungerechts BE, Reischle K, Wilke K, editors. Swimming science V. Champaign (IL): Human Kinetics, 1988: 269–75
Kaiser V, Janssen GME, Van Wersch JWJ. Effect of training on red blood cell parameters and plasma ferritin: a transverse and a longitudinal approach. Int J Sports Med 1989; 10: S169–75
Weight LM. ‘Sports anaemia’: does it exist? Sports Med 1993; 16: 1–4
Convertino VA, Keil C, Greenleaf JE. Plasma volume, osmolality, vasopressin, and renin activity during graded exercise in man. J Appl Physiol 1981; 50: 123–8
Convertino VA, Keil C, Greenleaf JE. Plasma volume, renin and vasopressin responses to graded exercise after training. J Appl Physiol 1983; 54: 508–14
Wade CH, Claybaugh JR. Plasma renin activity, vasopressin concentration, and urinary excretory responses to exercise in men. J Appl Physiol 1980; 49: 930–6
Rudzki SJ, Hazard H, Collinson D. Gastrointestinal blood loss in triathletes: it’s etiology and relationship to sports anaemia. Aust J Sci Med Sport 1995; 27: 3–8
Mujika I, Padilla S, Geyssant A, et al. Hematological responses to training and taper in competitive swimmers: relationships with performance. Arch Physiol Biochem 1997; 105: 379–85
Brodthagen UA, Hansen KN, Knudsen JB, et al. Red cell 2,3-DPG, ATP, and mean cell volume in highly trained athletes: effect of long-term submaximal exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 1985; 53: 334–8
Mairbäurl H, Humpeler E, Schwaberger G, et al. Training-dependent changes of red cell density and erythrocytic oxygen transport. J Appl Physiol 1983; 55: 1403–7
Seiler D, Nahel D, Franz H, et al. Effects of long-distance running on iron metabolism and hematological parameters. Int J Sports Med 1989; 10: 357–62
Dufaux B, Hoederath A, Streitberger I, et al. Serum ferritin, transferrin, haptoglobin, and iron in middle- and long-distance runners, elite rowers, and professional racing cyclists. Int J Sports Med 1981; 2: 43–6
Selby GB, Eichner ER. Endurance swimming, intravascular hemolysis, anemia, and iron depletion. Am J Med 1986; 81: 791–4
Bessman JD, Ridgeway Gilmer P, Gardner FH. Improved classification of anemias by MCV and RDW. Am J Clin Pathol 1983; 80: 322–6
Gledhill N. Blood doping and related issues: a brief review. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1982; 14: 183–9
Gledhill N. The influence of altered blood volume and oxygen transport capacity on aerobic performance. Exerc Sports Sci Rev 1985; 13: 75–94
Bothwell TH, Charlton RW, Cook JD, et al. Iron metabolism in man. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1979
Clement DB, Sawchuk LL. Iron status and sports performance. Sports Med 1984; 1: 65–74
Morton DP, Gastin PB. Effect of high intensity board training on upper body anaerobic capacity and short-lasting exercise performance. Aust J Sci Med Sport 1997; 29: 17–21
Walker JL, Heigenhauser GJF, Hultman E, et al. Dietary carbohydrate, muscle glycogen content, and endurance performance in well-trained women. J Appl Physiol 2000; 88: 2151–8
Kenitzer Jr RF. Optimal taper period in female swimmers. J Swimming Res 1998; 13: 31–6
Smith HK. Ergometer sprint performance and recovery with variations in training load in elite rowers. Int J Sports Med 2000; 21: 573–8
Steinacker JM, Lormes W, Kellmann M, et al. Training of junior rowers before world championships: effects on performance, mood state and selected hormonal and metabolic responses. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2000; 40: 327–35
Chatard JC, Paulin M, Lacour JR. Postcompetition blood lactate measurements and swimming performance: illustrated by data from a 400m Olympic record holder. In: Ungerechts BE, Reischle K, Wilke K, editors. Swimming science V. Champaign (IL): Human Kinetics, 1988: 311–6
Lacour JR, Bouvat E, Barthélémy JC. Post-competition blood lactate concentrations as indicators of anaerobic energy expenditure during 400m and 800m races. Eur J Appl Physiol 1990; 61: 172–6
Telford RD, Hahn AG, Catchpole EA, et al. Postcompetition blood lactate concentration in highly ranked Australian swimmers. In: In: Ungerechts BE, Reischle K, Wilke K, editors. Swimming science V. Champaign (IL): Human Kinetics, 1988: 277–83
Lowenstein JM. The purine nucleotide cycle revised. Int J Sports Med 1990; 11: S37–46
Sahlin K, Broberg S. Adenine nucleotide depletion in human muscle during exercise: causality and significance of AMP deamination. Int J Sports Med 1990; 11: S62–7
Tullson PC, Terjung RL. Adenine nucleotide metabolism in contracting skeletal muscle. Exerc Sports Sci Rev 1991; 19: 507–37
Warren BJ, Stone MH, Kearney JT, et al. Performance measures, blood lactate and plasma ammonia as indicators of overwork in elite junior weightlifters. Int J Sports Med 1992; 13: 372–6
Millard M, Zauner C, Cade R, et al. Serum CPK levels in male and female world class swimmers during a season of training. J Swimming Res 1985; 1: 12–6
Burke ER, Falsetti HL, Feld RD, et al. Creatine kinase levels in competitive swimming during a season of training. Scand J Sports Sci 1982; 4: 1–4
Child RB, Wilkinson DM, Fallowfield JL. Effects of a training taper on tissue damage indices, serum antioxidant capacity and half-marathon running performance. Int J Sports Med 2000; 21: 325–31
Banister EW, Morton RH, Fitz-Clarke J. Dose/response effects of exercise modeled from training: physical and biochemical measures. Ann Physiol Anthropol 1992; 11: 345–56
Adlercreutz H, Härkönen M, Kuoppasalmi K, et al. Effect of training on plasma anabolic and catabolic steroid hormones and their response during physical exercise. Int J Sports Med 1986; 7: 27–8
Kuoppasalmi K, Adlercreutz H. Interaction between catabolic and anabolic steroid hormones in muscular exercise. In: Fotherby K, Pal SB, editors. Exercise endocrinology. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co., 1985: 65–98
Tanaka H, Costill DL, Thomas R, et al. Dry-land resistance training for competitive swimming. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1993; 25: 952–9
Martin DT, Andersen MB, Gates W. Using profile of mood states (POMS) to monitor high-intensity training in cyclists: group versus case studies. Sport Psychol 2000; 14: 138–56
Cumming DC, Wall SR. Non-sex hormone-binding globulin-bound testosterone as a marker for hyperandrogenism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1985; 61: 873–6
Manni A, Partridge WM, Cefalu M. Bioavailability of albumin-bound testosterone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1985; 61: 705–10
Busso T, Häkkinen K, Pakarinen A, et al. Hormonal adaptations and modelled responses in elite weighlifters during 6 weeks of training. Eur J Appl Physiol 1992; 64: 381–6
O’Connor PJ, Morgan WP, Raglin JS, et al. Mood state and salivary cortisol levels following overtraining in female swimmers. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1989; 14: 303–10
Tharp GD, Barnes MW. Reduction of saliva immunoglobulin levels by swim training. Eur J Appl Physiol 1990; 60: 61–4
McCarthy DA, Dale MM. The leucocytosis of exercise: a review and model. Sports Med 1988; 6: 333–63
Stein M, Keller SE, Schleifer SJ. Stress and immunomodulation: the role of depression and neuroencocrine function. J Immunol 1985; 135: 827–33
Atlaoui D, Duelos M, Gouarne C, et al. The 24-hr urinary cortisol/cortisone ratio for monitoring training in elite swimmers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2004; 36(2): 218–24
Best R, Walker BR. Additional value of measurement of urinary cortisone and unconjugated cortisol metabolites in assessing the activity of 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in vivo. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1997; 47: 231–6
Kindermann W. Metabolic and hormonal reactions in overstrain. Semin Orthopaedics 1988; 3: 207–16
Kirwan JP, Costill DL, Flynn MG, et al. Physiological responses to successive days of intense training in competitive swimmers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1988; 20: 255–9
Hooper SL, Mackinnon LT, Gordon RD, et al. Hormonal responses of elite swimmers to overtraining. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1993; 25: 741–7
Hooper SL, Mackinnon LT, Howard A, et al. Markers for monitoring overtraining and recovery. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1995; 27: 106–12
Mackinnon LT, Hooper SL, Jones S, et al. Hormonal, immunological and hematological responses to intensified training in elite swimmers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1997; 29: 1637–45
Koziris LP, Hickson RC, Chatterton RT, et al. Serum levels of total and free IGF-I and IGFBP-3 are increased and maintained in long-term training. J Appl Physiol 1999; 86: 1436–42
Eliakim A, Nemet D, Bar-Sela S, et al. Changes in circulating IGF-I and their correlation with self-assessment and fitness among elite athletes. Int J Sports Med 2002; 23: 600–3
Carli G, Martelli G, Viti A, et al. Modulation of hormone levels in male swimmers during training. In: Hollander AP, Huijing P, De Goats G, editors. Biomechanics and medicine in swimming. Champaign (IL): Human Kinetics, 1983: 33–40
Fry RW, Morton AR, Keast D. Overtraining in athletes: an update. Sports Med 1991; 12: 32–65
Gordon T, Pattullo MC. Plasticity of muscle fiber and motor unit types. Exerc Sports Sci Rev 1993; 21: 331–62
Hoppeler H. Exercise-induced ultrastructural changes in skeletal muscle. Int J Sports Med 1986; 7: 187–204
Kannus P, Josza L, Renström P, et al. The effects of training, immobilization and remobilization on muskuloskeletal tissue: 1. Training and immobilization. Scand J Med Sci Sports 1992; 2: 100–18
Saltin B, Gollnick PD. Skeletal muscle adaptability: significance for metabolism and performance. In: Peachey LD, editor. Handbook of physiology: skeletal muscle. Bethesda (MD): American Physiological Society, 1983: 555–631
Prins JH, Lally DA, Maes KE, et al. Changes in peak force and work in competitive swimmers during training and taper as tested on a biokinetic swimming bench. In: Cameron JM, editor. Aquatic sports medicine. London: Farrand Press, 1991: 80–8
Gibala MJ, MacDougall JD, Sale DG. The effects of tapering on strength performance in trained athletes. Int J Sports Med 1994; 15: 492–7
Martin DT, Scifres JC, Zimmerman SD, et al. Effects of interval training and a taper on cycling performance and isokinetic leg strength. Int J Sports Med 1994; 15: 485–91
Mackinnon LT. Chronic exercise training effects on immune function. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32 (7 Suppl.): S369–76
Peake JM. Exercise-induced alterations in neutrophil degranulation and respiratory burst activity: possible mechanisms of action. Exerc Immunol Rev 2002; 8: 49–100
Tharp G, Preuss T. Mitogenic response of T-lymphocytes to exercise training and stress. J Appl Physiol 1991; 70: 2535–8
Gleeson M, McDonald WA, Pyne DB, et al. Salivary IgA levels and infection risk in elite swimmers. Med Sci Sports Exer 1999; 31: 67–73
Gleeson M, Pyne D. Exercise effects on mucosal immunity. Immunol Cell Biol 2000; 78: 536–44
Bruunsgaard H, Hartkopp A, Mohr T, et al. In vivo cell-mediated immunity and vaccination response following prolonged, intense exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1997; 29: 1176–81
Malm C. Exercise immunology: a skeletal muscle perspective. Exerc Immunol Rev 2002; 8: 116–67
Nieman DC. Exercise and upper respiratory tract infection. Sports Med Training Rehab 1993; 4: 1–14
Hoffman-Goetz L, Pedersen BK. Exercise and the immune system: a model of the stress response? Immunol Today 1994; 15: 382–7
Smith LL. Overtraining, excessive exercise and altered immunity: is this a T helper-1 versus T helper-2 lymphocyte response? Sports Med 2003; 33: 347–64
Smith JA, Pyne DB. Exercise, training and neutrophil function. Exerc Immunol Rev 1997; 3: 96–117
Gleeson M. Mucosal immunity and respiratory illness in elite athletes. Int J Sports Med 2000; 21Suppl. 1: S33–43
Baj Z, Kantorski J, Majewski E, et al. Immunological status of competitive cyclists before and after the training season. Int J Sports Med 1994; 15: 319–24
Fry RW, Morton AR, Crawford GPM, et al. Cell numbers and in vitro responses of leucocytes and lymphocyte subpopulations following maximal exercise and interval training sessions of different intensities. Eur J Appl Physiol 1992; 64: 218–27
Pizza FX, Mitchell JB, Davis BH, et al. Exercise-induced muscle damage: effect on circulating leukocyte and lymphocyte subsets. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1995; 27: 363–70
Verde TJ, Thomas S, Shek P, et al. Responses of lymphocyte subsets, mitogen-stimulated cell proliferation, and immunoglobulin synthesis to vigorous exercise in well-trained athletes. Clin J Sports Med 1992; 2: 87–92
Kajiura JS, MacDougall JD, Ernst PB, et al. Immune responses to changes in training intensity and volume in runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1995; 27: 1111–7
Wilson M, Kreider R, Ratzlaff R, et al. Effects of a 3-week taper period following 22-weeks of intercollegiate swim training on fasting immune status. Proceedings of the Overtraining and Overreaching in Sport International Conference; 1996 Jul 14–17, Memphis, 73
Niess AM, Dickhuth HH, Northoff H, et al. Free radicals and oxidative stress in exercise: immunological aspects. Exerc Immunol Rev 1999; 5: 22–56
Suzuki K, Nakaji S, Yamada M, et al. Systemic inflammatory responses to exhaustive exercise: cytokine kinetics. Exerc Immunol Rev 2002; 8: 7–48
Mackinnon LT, Hooper S. Mucosal (secretory) immune system responses to exercise of varying intensity and during overtraining. Int J Sports Med 1994; 15: S179–83
Gleeson M, McDonald WA, Cripps AW, et al. The effect of immunity of long-term intensive training in elite swimmers. Clin Exp Immunol 1995; 102: 210–5
Gleeson M, McDonald WA, Pyne DB, et al. Immune status and respiratory illness for elite swimmers during a 12-week training cycle. Int J Sports Med 2000; 21: 302–7
Nehlsen-Cannarella SL, Nieman DC, Fagoaga OR, et al. Saliva immunoglobulins in elite women rowers. Eur J Appl Physiol 2000; 81: 222–8
Ostrowski K, Rohde T, Asp S, et al. Pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine balance in strenuous exercise in humans. J Physiol 1999; 515: 287–91
Smith LL, Anwar A, Fragen M, et al. Cytokines and cell adhesion molecules associated with high-intensity eccentric exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 2000; 82: 61–7
Konig D, Grathwohl D, Weinstock C, et al. Upper respiratory tract infection in athletes: influence of lifestyle, type of sport, training effort and immunostimulant intake. Exer Immunol Rev 2000; 6: 102–20
Pyne DB, Gleeson M, McDonald WA, et al. Training strategies to maintain immunocompetence in athletes. Int J Sports Med 2000; 21: S51–60
Noakes TD. Physiological models to understand exercise fatigue and the adaptations that predict or enhance athletic performance. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2000; 10: 123–45
Morgan WP, Brown DR, Raglin JS, et al. Psychological monitoring of overtraining and staleness. Br J Sports Med 1987; 21: 107–14
Raglin JS, Morgan WP, O’Connor PJ. Changes in mood states during training in female and male college swimmers. Int J Sports Med 1991; 12: 585–9
Snyder AC, Jeukendrup AE, Hesselink MKC, et al. A physiological/psychological indicator of over-reaching during intensive training. Int J Sports Med 1993; 14: 29–32
Berglund B, Säfström H. Psychological monitoring and modulation of training load of world-class canoeists. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1994; 26: 1036–40
Berger BG, Grove JR, Prapavessis H, et al. Relationship of swimming distance, expectancy, and performance to mood states of competitive athletes. Percept Mot Skills 1997; 84: 1199–210
Berger BG, Motl RW, Butki BD, et al. Mood and cycling performance in response to three weeks of high-intensity, short-duration overtraining, and a two-week taper. Sport Psychol 1999; 13: 444–57
Borg G, Hassmen P, Lagerstrom M. Perceived exertion related to heart rate and blood lactate during arm and leg exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 1987; 65: 679–85
Noble BJ, Robertson RJ. Perceived exertion. Champaign (IL): Human Kinetics, 2000
Watt B, Grove R. Perceived exertion: antecedents and applications. Sports Med 1993; 15: 225–41
Borg G. Perceived exertion as an indicator of somatic stress. Scand J Rehabil Med 1970; 2: 92–8
Borg G. Psychophysical bases of perceived exertion. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1982; 14: 377–81
Hague JFE, Gilbert SS, Burgess HJ, et al. A sedentary day: effects on subsequent sleep and body temperatures in trained athletes. Physiol Behav 2003; 78: 261–7
Banister EW, Calvert TW, Savage MV, et al. A systems model of training for athletic performance. Aust J Sports Med 1975; 7: 57–61
Calvert TW, Banister EW, Savage MV, et al. A systems model of the effects of training on physical performance. IEEE Trans Syst Man Cybern 1976; 6: 94–102
Morton RH, Fitz-Clarke JR, Banister EW. Modeling human performance in running. J Appl Physiol 1990; 69: 1171–7
Banister EW, Hamilton CL. Variations in iron status with fatigue modelled from training in female distance runners. Eur J Appl Physiol 1985; 54: 16–23
Busso T, Häkkinen K, Pakarinen A, et al. A systems model of training responses and its relationship to hormonal responses in elite weight-lifters. Eur J Appl Physiol 1990; 61: 48–54
Busso T, Candau R, Lacour JR. Fatigue and fitness modelled from the effects of training on performance. Eur J Appl Physiol 1994; 69: 50–4
Fitz-Clarke JR, Morton RH, Banister EW. Optimizing athletic performance by influence curves. J Appl Physiol 1991; 71: 1151–8
Morton RH. The quantitative periodization of athletic training: a model study. Sports Med Training Rehab 1991; 3: 19–28
Busso T, Benoit H, Bonnefoy R, et al. Effects of training frequency on the dynamics of performance response to a single training bout. J Appl Physiol 2002; 92: 572–80
Busso T, Denis C, Bonnefoy R, et al. Modeling of adaptations to physical training by using a recursive least squares algorithm. J Appl Physiol 1997; 82: 1685–93
Busso T. Variable dose-response relationship between exercise training and performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003; 35: 1188–95
Halson SL, Bridge MW, Meeusen R, et al. Time course of performance changes and fatigue markers during intensified training in trained cyclists. J Appl Physiol 2002; 93: 947–56
Kuipers H. Training and overtraining: an introduction. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1998; 30: 1137–9
Vira A, Vira M. Biochemical monitoring of sport training. Champaign (IL): Human Kinetics, 2001
Petibois C, Cazorla G, Cassaigne A, et al. Application of FT-IR spectrometry to determine the global metabolic adaptations to physical conditioning in sportsmen. Appl Spectrosc 2002; 56: 1259–67
Petibois C, Cazorla G, Déléris G. FT-IR spectroscopy utilization to sportsmen fatigability evaluation and control. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32: 1803–8
Petibois C, Cazorla G, Déléris G. The biological and metabolic adaptations to 12 months training in elite rowers. Int J Sports Med 2003; 24: 36–42
Petibois C, Cazorla G, Déléris G, et al. Clinical diagnosis of overtraining using blood tests: current knowledge [in French]. Rev Med Interne 2001; 22: 723–36
Petibois C, Cazorla G, Poortmans JR, et al. Biochemical aspects of overtraining in endurance sports: a review. Sports Med 2002; 32: 867–78
Petibois C, Cazorla G, Poortmans JR, et al. Biochemical aspects of overtraining in endurance sports: the metabolism alteration process syndrome. Sports Med 2003; 33: 83–94
Petibois C, Déléris G. Fourier-transform infrared spectrometry determination of the metabolic changes during a maximal 400-meter swimming test. Int J Sports Med 2003; 24: 313–9
Petibois C, Déléris G. Effects of short- and long-term detraining on the metabolic response to endurance exercise. Int J Sports Med 2003; 24: 320–5
Petibois C, Déléris G. Stress-induced plasma volume change determined using plasma FT-IR spectra. Appl Spectrosc 2003; 57: 396–9
Petibois C, Melin AM, Perromat A, et al. Glucose and lactate concentration determination on single microsamples by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. J Lab Clin Med 2000; 135: 210–5
Petibois C, Paiva M, Cazorla G, et al. Discriminant serum biochemical parameters in top class marathon performances. Jpn J Physiol 2002; 52: 181–90
Acknowledgements
No sources of funding were used to assist in the preparation of this review. The authors have no conflicts of interest that are directly relevant to the content of this review.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Mujika, I., Padilla, S., Pyne, D. et al. Physiological Changes Associated with the Pre-Event Taper in Athletes. Sports Med 34, 891–927 (2004). https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200434130-00003
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200434130-00003