Skip to main content

Factors Affecting Running Economy in Trained Distance Runners

Sports Medicine volume 34, pages 465–485 (2004)Cite this article

Abstract

Running economy (RE) is typically defined as the energy demand for a given velocity of submaximal running, and is determined by measuring the steady-state consumption of oxygen (V̇O2) and the respiratory exchange ratio. Taking body mass (BM) into consideration, runners with good RE use less energy and therefore less oxygen than runners with poor RE at the same velocity. There is a strong association between RE and distance running performance, with RE being a better predictor of performance than maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O2max) in elite runners who have a similar V̇O2max.

RE is traditionally measured by running on a treadmill in standard laboratory conditions, and, although this is not the same as overground running, it gives a good indication of how economical a runner is and how RE changes over time. In order to determine whether changes in RE are real or not, careful standardisation of footwear, time of test and nutritional status are required to limit typical error of measurement. Under controlled conditions, RE is a stable test capable of detecting relatively small changes elicited by training or other interventions. When tracking RE between or within groups it is important to account for BM. As V̇O2 during submaximal exercise does not, in general, increase linearly with BM, reporting RE with respect to the 0.75 power of BM has been recommended.

A number of physiological and biomechanical factors appear to influence RE in highly trained or elite runners. These include metabolic adaptations within the muscle such as increased mitochondria and oxidative enzymes, the ability of the muscles to store and release elastic energy by increasing the stiffness of the muscles, and more efficient mechanics leading to less energy wasted on braking forces and excessive vertical oscillation.

Interventions to improve RE are constantly sought after by athletes, coaches and sport scientists. Two interventions that have received recent widespread attention are strength training and altitude training. Strength training allows the muscles to utilise more elastic energy and reduce the amount of energy wasted in braking forces. Altitude exposure enhances discrete metabolic aspects of skeletal muscle, which facilitate more efficient use of oxygen.

The importance of RE to successful distance running is well established, and future research should focus on identifying methods to improve RE. Interventions that are easily incorporated into an athlete’s training are desirable.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 49.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Table I
Fig. 3

References

  1. Costill DL. The relationship between selected physiological variables and distance running performance. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1967; 7(2): 61–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Hagan RD, Smith MG, Gettman LR. Marathon performance in relation to maximal aerobic power and training indices. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1981; 13(3): 185–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Saltin B, Astrand PO. Maximal oxygen uptake in athletes. J Appl Physiol 1967; 23(3): 353–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Conley DL, Krahenbuhl GS. Running economy and distance running performance of highly trained athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1980; 12(5): 357–60

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Costill DL, Thomason H, Roberts E. Fractional utilization of the aerobic capacity during distance running. Med Sci Sports 1973; 5(4): 248–52

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Coyle EF. Physiological determinants of endurance exercise performance. J Sci Med Sport 1999; 2(3): 181–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Billat VL, Flechet B, Petit B, et al. Interval training at VO2max: effects on aerobic performance and overtraining markers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1999; 31(1): 156–63

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Daniels JT. A physiologist’s view of running economy. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1985; 17(3): 332–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Anderson T. Biomechanics and running economy. Sports Med 1996; 22(2): 76–89

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Conley DL, Krahenbuhl GS, Burkett LN, et al. Following Steve Scott: physiological changes accompanying training. Phys Sportsmed 1984; 12: 103–6

    Google Scholar 

  11. Morgan DW, Craib M. Physiological aspects of running economy. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1992; 24(4): 456–61

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Thomas DQ, Fernhall B, Grant H. Changes in running economy during a 5km run in trained men and women runners. J Strength Cond Res 1999; 13(2): 162–7

    Google Scholar 

  13. MacDougall JD. The anaerobic threshold: its significance for the endurance athlete. Can J Appl Sports Sci 1977; 2: 137–40

    Google Scholar 

  14. Morgan DW, Baldini FD, Martin PE, et al. Ten kilometer performance and predicted velocity at VO2max among well-trained male runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1989; 21(1): 78–83

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Di Prampero PE, Capelli C, Pagliaro P, et al. Energetics of best performances in middle-distance running. J Appl Physiol 1993; 74(5): 2318–24

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Pollock ML. Submaximal and maximal working capacity of elite distance runners. Part I: cardiorespiratory aspects. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1977; 301: 310–22

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Daniels N, Daniels J, Baldwin C, et al. The effect of wind on the aerobic demand of running. National Meeting of the American College of Sports Medicine; 1986 May; Indianapolis

  18. Pugh LG. Oxygen intake in track and treadmill running with observations on the effect of air resistance. J Physiol 1970; 207(3): 823–35

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Davies CT. Effects of wind assistance and resistance on the forward motion of a runner. J Appl Physiol 1980; 48(4): 702–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Hagerman F, Addington WW, Gaensler EA. Severe steady state exercise at sea level and altitude in Olympic oarsmen. Med Sci Sports 1975; 7(4): 275–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Costill DL, Fox EL. Energetics of marathon running. Med Sci Sports 1969; 1: 81–6

    Google Scholar 

  22. Hausswirth C, Bigard AX, Le Chevalier JM. The Cosmed K4 telemetry system as an accurate device for oxygen uptake measurements during exercise. Int J Sports Med 1997; 18(6): 449–53

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Billat V, Demarle A, Paiva M, et al. Effect of training on the physiological factors of performance in elite marathon runners (males and females). Int J Sports Med 2002; 23(5): 336–41

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Slawinski J, Demarle A, Koralsztein JP, et al. Effect of supralactate threshold training on the relationship between mechanical stride descriptors and aerobic energy cost in trained runners. Arch Physiol Biochem 2001; 109(2): 110–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Billat VL, Slawinski J, Danel M, et al. Effect of free versus constant pace on performance and oxygen kinetics in running. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001; 33(12): 2082–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Billat VL, Slawinski J, Bocquet V, et al. Intermittent runs at the velocity associated with maximal oxygen uptake enables subjects to remain at maximal oxygen uptake for a longer time than intense but submaximal runs. Eur J Appl Physiol 2000; 81(3): 188–96

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Daniels J, Scardina N, Hayes J, et al. Variations in VO2 sub-max during treadmill running [abstract]. Med Sci Sports 1984; 16: 108

    Google Scholar 

  28. Brisswalter J, Legros P. Daily stability in energy cost of running, respiratory parameters and stride rate among well-trained middle distance runners. Int J Sports Med 1994; 15(5): 238–41

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Morgan DW. Effects of a prolonged maximal run on running economy and running mechanics [dissertation]. Tempe (AZ): Arizona State University, 1988

    Google Scholar 

  30. Morgan DW, Baldini FD, Martin PE. Day-to-day stability in running economy and step length among well-trained male runners [abstract]. Int J Sports Med 1987; 8: 242

    Google Scholar 

  31. Morgan DW, Craib MW, Krahenbuhl GS, et al. Daily variability in running economy among well-trained male and female distance runners. Res Q Exerc Sport 1994; 65(1): 72–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Morgan DW, Martin PE, Krahenbuhl GS, et al. Variability in running economy and mechanics among trained male runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1991; 23(3): 378–83

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Pereira MA, Freedson PS. Intraindividual variation of running economy in highly trained and moderately trained males. Int J Sports Med 1997; 18(2): 118–24

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Pereira MA, Freedson PS, Maliszewski AF. Intra-individual variation during inclined steady rate treadmill running. Res Q Exerc Sport 1994; 65: 184–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Brisswalter J, Legros P. Variability in energy cost of running during one training season in high level runners. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1994; 34(2): 135–40

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Davies MJ, Mahar MT, Cunningham LN. Running economy: comparison of body mass adjustment methods. Res Q Exerc Sport 1997; 68(2): 177–81

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Bergh U, Sjodin B, Forsberg A, et al. The relationship between body mass and oxygen uptake during running in humans. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1991; 23(2): 205–11

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Taylor CR, Heglund NC, Maloiy GM. Energetics and mechanics of terrestrial locomotion: I. metabolic energy consumption as a function of speed and body size in birds and mammals. J Exp Biol 1982; 97: 1–21

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Astrand PO. Experimental studies of physical working capacity in relation to sex and age. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1952

    Google Scholar 

  40. Bourdin M, Pastene J, Germain M, et al. Influence of training, sex, age and body mass on the energy cost of running. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1993; 66(5): 439–44

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Daniels J, Oldridge N. Changes in oxygen consumption of young boys during growth and running training. Med Sci Sports 1971; 3(4): 161–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Daniels J, Oldridge N, Nagle F, et al. Differences and changes in VO2 among young runners 10 to 18 years of age. Med Sci Sports 1978; 10(3): 200–3

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Krahenbuhl GS, Morgan DW, Pangrazi RP. Longitudinal changes in distance-running performance of young males. Int J Sports Med 1989; 10(2): 92–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Krahenbuhl GS, Skinner JS, Kohrt WM. Developmental aspects of maximal aerobic power in children. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 1985; 13: 503–38

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Leger L, Mercier D. Gross energy cost of horizontal treadmill and track running. Sports Med 1984; 1(4): 270–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. MacDougall JD, Roche PD, Bar-Or O, et al. Maximal aerobic capacity of Canadian schoolchildren: prediction based on age-related oxygen cost of running. Int J Sports Med 1983; 4(3): 194–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Morgan DW, Martin PE, Krahenbuhl GS. Factors affecting running economy. Sports Med 1989; 7(5): 310–30

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Rowland TW. Oxygen uptake and endurance fitness in children: a developmental perspective. Pediatr Exerc Sci 1989; 1: 313–28

    Google Scholar 

  49. Rowland TW, Green GM. Physiological responses to treadmill exercise in females: adult-child differences. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1988; 20(5): 474–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Unnithan VB, Eston RG. Stride frequency and submaximal treadmill running economy in adults and children. Pediatr Exerc Sci 1990; 2: 149–55

    Google Scholar 

  51. Sjodin B, Svedenhag J. Oxygen uptake during running as related to body mass in circumpubertal boys: a longitudinal study. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1992; 65(2): 150–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Svedenhag J, Sjodin B. Body-mass-modified running economy and step length in elite male middle- and long-distance runners. Int J Sports Med 1994; 15(6): 305–10

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Pate RR, Macera CA, Bailey SP, et al. Physiological, anthropometric, and training correlates of running economy. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1992; 24(10): 1128–33

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Williams KR, Cavanagh PR. Relationship between distance running mechanics, running economy, and performance. J Appl Physiol 1987; 63(3): 1236–45

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Catlin ME, Dressendorfer RH. Effect of shoe weight on the energy cost of running [abstract]. Med Sci Sports 1979; 11: 80

    Google Scholar 

  56. Jones BH, Knapik JJ, Daniels WL, et al. The energy cost of women walking and running in shoes and boots. Ergonomics 1986; 29(3): 439–43

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Martin PE. Mechanical and physiological responses to lower extremity loading during running. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1985; 17(4): 427–33

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Myers MJ, Steudel K. Effect of limb mass and its distribution on the energetic cost of running. J Exp Biol 1985; 116: 363–73

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Fredrick EC, Clarke TE, Larsen JL, et al. The effects of shoe cushioning on the oxygen demands of running. In: Nigg BM, Kerr BA, editors. Biomechanical aspects of sport shoes and playing surfaces. Calgary: University of Calgary, 1983: 107–14

    Google Scholar 

  60. Svedenhag J, Sjodin B. Physiological characteristics of elite male runners in and off-season. Can J Appl Sport Sci 1985; 10(3): 127–33

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Farrell PA, Wilmore JH, Coyle EF, et al. Plasma lactate accumulation and distance running performance. 1979. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1993; 25(10): 1091–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Weston AR, Mbambo Z, Myburgh KH. Running economy of African and Caucasian distance runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32(6): 1130–4

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Adams WC, Bernauer EM. The effect of selected pace variations on the oxygen requirement of running a 4: 37 mile. Res Q 1968; 39(4): 837–46

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Armstrong LE, Gehlsen G. Running mechanics of national class distance runners during a marathon. Track Field Q Rev 1985; 85: 37–9

    Google Scholar 

  65. Thomas DQ, Fernhall B, Blanpied P, et al. Changes in running economy and mechanics during a 5 km run. J Strength Cond Res 1995; 9: 170–5

    Google Scholar 

  66. Brooks GA, Hittelman KJ, Faulkner JA, et al. Temperature, skeletal muscle mitochondrial functions, and oxygen debt. Am J Physiol 1971; 220(4): 1053–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Brooks GA, Hittelman KJ, Faulkner JA, et al. Temperature, liver mitochondrial respiratory functions, and oxygen debt. Med Sci Sports 1971; 3(2): 72–4

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. MacDougall JD, Reddan WG, Layton CR, et al. Effects of metabolic hyperthermia on performance during heavy prolonged exercise. J Appl Physiol 1974; 36(5): 538–44

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Saltin B, Stenberg J. Circulatory response to prolonged severe exercise. J Appl Physiol 1964; 19: 833–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Rowell LB, Brengelmann GL, Murray JA, et al. Human metabolic responses to hyperthermia during mild to maximal exercise. J Appl Physiol 1969; 26(4): 395–402

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Bosco C, Montanari G, Ribacchi R, et al. Relationship between the efficiency of muscular work during jumping and the energetics of running. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1987; 56(2): 138–43

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Kaneko M. Mechanics and energetics in running with special reference to efficiency. J Biomech 1990; 23Suppl. 1: 57–63

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Bailey SP, Pate RR. Feasibility of improving running economy. Sports Med 1991; 12(4): 228–36

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Bransford DR, Howley ET. Oxygen cost of running in trained and untrained men and women. Med Sci Sports 1977; 9(1): 41–4

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Daniels J. Physiological characteristics of champion male athletes. Res Q 1974; 45(4): 342–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Ekblom B, Astrand PO, Saltin B, et al. Effect of training on circulatory response to exercise. J Appl Physiol 1968; 24(4): 518–28

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Conley DL, Krahenbuhl GS, Burkett LN, et al. Physiological correlates of female road racing performance. Res Q Exerc Sport 1981; 52(4): 441–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Franch J, Madsen K, Djurhuus MS, et al. Improved running economy following intensified training correlates with reduced ventilatory demands. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1998; 30(8): 1250–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Mayers N, Gutin B. Physiological characteristics of elite prepubertal cross-country runners. Med Sci Sports 1979; 11(2): 172–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Paavolainen L, Hakkinen K, Hamalainen I, et al. Explosive-strength training improves 5-km running time by improving running economy and muscle power. J Appl Physiol 1999; 86(5): 1527–33

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Sjodin B, Jacobs I, Svedenhag J. Changes in onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA) and muscle enzymes after training at OBLA. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1982; 49(1): 45–57

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Dolgener F. Oxygen cost of walking and running in untrained, sprint trained, and endurance trained females. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1982; 22(1): 60–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Krahenbuhl GS, Pangrazi RP. Characteristics associated with running performance in young boys. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1983; 15(6): 486–90

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Pollock ML, Jackson AS, Pate RR. Discriminant analysis of physiological differences between good and elite distance runners. Res Q Exerc Sport 1980; 51(3): 521–32

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Svedenhag J, Sjodin B. Maximal and submaximal oxygen uptakes and blood lactate levels in elite male middle- and longdistance runners. Int J Sports Med 1984; 5(5): 255–61

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Holloszy JO, Rennie MJ, Hickson RC, et al. Physiological consequences of the biochemical adaptations to endurance exercise. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1977; 301: 440–50

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Daniels J, Daniels N. Running economy of elite male and elite female runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1992; 24(4): 483–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Daniels J, Krahenbuhl G, Foster C, et al. Aerobic responses of female distance runners to submaximal and maximal exercise. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1977; 301: 726–33

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Costill DL. Muscle metabolism and electrolyte balance during heat acclimation. Acta Physiol Scand Suppl 1986; 556: 111–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Cavanagh PR, Williams KR. The effect of stride length variation on oxygen uptake during distance running. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1982; 14(1): 30–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Fredrick EC. Measuring the effects of shoes and surfaces on the economy of locomotion. In: Nigg BM, Kerr BA, editors. Biomechanical aspects of sport shoes and playing surfaces. Calgary: University of Calgary, 1983: 93–106

    Google Scholar 

  92. Dalleau G, Belli A, Bourdin M, et al. The spring-mass model and the energy cost of treadmill running. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1998; 77(3): 257–63

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Collins MH, Pearsall DJ, Zavorsky GS, et al. Acute effects of intense interval training on running mechanics. J Sports Sci 2000; 18(2): 83–90

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Kyrolainen H, Pullinen T, Candau R, et al. Effects of marathon running on running economy and kinematics. Eur J Appl Physiol 2000; 82(4): 297–304

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Morgan DW, Martin PE, Baldini FD, et al. Effects of a prolonged maximal run on running economy and running mechanics. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1990; 22(6): 834–40

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Nichol C, Komi PV, Marconnet P. Effects of marathon fatigue on running kinematics and economy. Scand J Med Sci Sports 1991; 1: 195–204

    Google Scholar 

  97. Hausswirth C, Bigard AX, Guezennec CY. Relationships between running mechanics and energy cost of running at the end of a triathlon and a marathon. Int J Sports Med 1997; 18(5): 330–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Hogberg P. How do stride length and stride frequency influence the energy output during running. Arbeitsphysiologie 1952; 14: 437–41

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Kaneko M, Matsumoto M, Ito A, et al. Optimum step frequency in constant speed running. In: Jonsson B, editor. Biomechanics X-B. Champaign (IL): Human Kinetics, 1987: 803–7

    Google Scholar 

  100. Knuttgen HG. Oxygen uptake and pulse rate while running with undetermined and determined stride-lengths at different speeds. Acta Physiol Scand 1961; 52: 366–71

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Powers SK, Hopkins P, Ragsdale MR. Oxygen uptake and ventilatory responses to various stride lengths in trained women. Am Correct Ther J 1982; 36(1): 5–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Cavanagh PR, Pollock ML, Landa J. A biomechanical comparison of elite and good distance runners. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1977; 301: 328–45

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Williams KR, Cavanagh PR. Biomechanical correlates with running economy in elite distance runners. Proceedings of the North American Congress on Biomechanics; Montreal; 1986 Aug, 287–8

  104. Anderson T, Tseh W. Running economy, anthropometric dimensions and kinematic variables [abstract]. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1994; 26 (5 Suppl.): S170

    Google Scholar 

  105. Kyrolainen H, Belli A, Komi PV. Biomechanical factors affecting running economy. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001; 33(8): 1330–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Aruin AS, Prilutskii BI. Relationship of the biomechanical properties of muscles to their ability to utilize elastic deformation energy. Hum Physiol 1985; 11(1): 8–12

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Aruin AS, Prilutskii BI, Raitsin LM, et al. Biomechanical properties of muscles and efficiency of movement. Hum Physiol 1979; 5(4): 426–34

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Aura O, Komi PV. The mechanical efficiency of locomotion in men and women with special emphasis on stretch-shortening cycle exercises. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1986; 55(1): 37–43

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Cavagna GA, Kaneko M. Mechanical work and efficiency in level walking and running. J Physiol 1977; 268(2): 647–81

    Google Scholar 

  110. Ker RF, Bennett MB, Bibby SR, et al. The spring in the arch of the human foot. Nature 1987; 325(7000): 147–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Cavagna GA, Saibene FP, Margaria R. Mechanical work in running. J Appl Physiol 1964; 18: 1–9

    Google Scholar 

  112. Taylor CR. Relating mechanics and energetics during exercise. Adv Vet Sci Comp Med 1994; 38A: 181–215

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Alexander RM. Energy-saving mechanisms in walking and running. J Exp Biol 1991; 160: 55–69

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Cavagna GA, Franzetti P, Heglund NC, et al. The determinants of the step frequency in running, trotting and hopping in man and other vertebrates. J Physiol 1988; 399: 81–92

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Craib MW, Mitchell VA, Fields KB, et al. The association between flexibility and running economy in sub-elite male distance runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1996; 28(6): 737–43

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Gleim GW, Stachenfeld NS, Nicholas JA. The influence of flexibility on the economy of walking and jogging. J Orthop Res 1990; 8(6): 814–23

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Godges JJ, Macrae H, Longdon C, et al. The effects of two stretching procedures on hip range of motion and gait economy. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1989; 7: 350–7

    Google Scholar 

  118. Asmussen E, Bonde-Petersen F. Apparent efficiency and storage of elastic energy in human muscles during exercise. Acta Physiol Scand 1974; 92(4): 537–45

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Dawson TJ, Taylor CR. Energetic cost of locomotion in kangaroos. Nature 1973; 246: 313–4

    Google Scholar 

  120. Ker RF. Dynamic tensile properties of the plantaris tendon of sheep (Ovis aries). J Exp Biol 1981; 93: 283–302

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Jones AM. Running economy is negatively related to sit-and-reach test performance in international-standard distance runners. Int J Sports Med 2002; 23(1): 40–3

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Kram R, Taylor CR. Energetics of running: a new perspective. Nature 1990; 346(6281): 265–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Heise GD, Martin PE. Are variations in running economy in humans associated with ground reaction force characteristics? Eur J Appl Physiol 2001; 84(5): 438–42

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Chang YH, Kram R. Metabolic cost of generating horizontal forces during human running. J Appl Physiol 1999; 86(5): 1657–62

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Farley CT, McMahon TA. Energetics of walking and running: insights from simulated reduced-gravity experiments. J Appl Physiol 1992; 73(6): 2709–12

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Pugh LG. The influence of wind resistance in running and walking and the mechanical efficiency of work against horizontal or vertical forces. J Physiol 1971; 213(2): 255–76

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Cooke CB, McDonagh MJ, Nevill AM, et al. Effects of load on oxygen intake in trained boys and men during treadmill running. J Appl Physiol 1991; 71(4): 1237–44

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Lloyd BB, Zacks RM. The mechanical efficiency of treadmill running against a horizontal impeding force. J Physiol 1972; 223(2): 355–63

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Zacks RM. The mechanical efficiencies of running and bicycling against a horizontal impeding force. Int Z Angew Physiol 1973; 31(4): 249–58

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Hakkinen K. Neuromuscular adaptation during strength-training, aging, detraining, and immobilization. Crit Rev Phys Rehab Med 1994; 6: 161–98

    Google Scholar 

  131. Bulbulian R, Wilcox AR, Darabos BL. Anaerobic contribution to distance running performance of trained cross-country athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1986; 18(1): 107–13

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. Houmard JA, Costill DL, Mitchell JB, et al. The role of anaerobic ability in middle distance running performance. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1991; 62(1): 40–3

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Hickson RC, Dvorak BA, Gorostiaga EM, et al. Potential for strength and endurance training to amplify endurance performance. J Appl Physiol 1988; 65(5): 2285–90

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Marcinik EJ, Potts J, Schlabach G, et al. Effects of strength training on lactate threshold and endurance performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1991; 23(6): 739–43

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. McCarthy JP, Agre JC, Graf BK, et al. Compatibility of adaptive responses with combining strength and endurance training. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1995; 27(3): 429–36

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Johnston RE, Quinn TJ, Kertzer R, et al. Strength training in female distance runners: impact on running economy. J Strength Cond Res 1997; 11: 224–9

    Google Scholar 

  137. Millet GP, Jaouen B, Borrani F, et al. Effects of concurrent endurance and strength training on running economy and.VO (2) kinetics. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2002; 34(8): 1351–9

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Hakkinen K, Komi PV, Alen M. Effect of explosive type strength training on isometric force- and relaxation-time, electromyographic and muscle fibre characteristics of leg extensor muscles. Acta Physiol Scand 1985; 125(4): 587–600

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Sale D. Neural adaptation to strength training. In: Komi PV, editor. The encyclopedia of sports medicine. Oxford: Blackwell, 1991: 249–65

    Google Scholar 

  140. Turner AM, Owings M, Schwane JA. Improvement in running economy after 6 weeks of plyometric training. J Strength Cond Res 2003; 17(1): 60–7

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  141. Spurrs RW, Murphy AJ, Watsford ML. The effect of plyometric training on distance running performance. Eur J Appl Physiol 2003; 89(1): 1–7

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Ashenden MJ, Gore CJ, Dobson GP, et al. Simulated moderate altitude elevates serum erythropoietin but does not increase reticulocyte production in well-trained runners. Eur J Appl Physiol 2000; 81(5): 428–35

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. Ashenden MJ, Gore CJ, Dobson GP, et al. “Live high, train low” does not change the total haemoglobin mass of male endurance athletes sleeping at a simulated altitude of 3000m for 23 nights. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1999; 80(5): 479–84

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  144. Ashenden MJ, Gore CJ, Martin DT, et al. Effects of a 12-day ‘live high, train low’ camp on reticulocyte production and haemoglobin mass in elite female road cyclists. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1999; 80(5): 472–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  145. Bailey DM, Davies B, Romer L, et al. Implications of moderate altitude training for sea-level endurance in elite distance runners. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1998; 78(4): 360–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Brooks GA, Butterfield GE, Wolfe RR, et al. Increased dependence on blood glucose after acclimatization to 4300m. J Appl Physiol 1991; 70(2): 919–27

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. Brooks GA, Wolfel EE, Groves BM, et al. Muscle accounts for glucose disposal but not blood lactate appearance during exercise after acclimatization to 4300m. J Appl Physiol 1992; 72(6): 2435–45

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Burtscher M, Nachbauer W, Baumgartl P, et al. Benefits of training at moderate altitude versus sea level training in amateur runners. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1996; 74(6): 558–63

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  149. Dick FW. Training at altitude in practice. Int J Sports Med 1992; 13Suppl. 1: S203–6

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. Gore CJ, Hahn A, Rice A, et al. Altitude training at 2690m does not increase total haemoglobin mass or sea level VO2max in world champion track cyclists. J Sci Med Sport 1998; 1(3): 156–70

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. Gore CJ, Hahn AG, Aughey RJ, et al. Live high: train low increases muscle buffer capacity and submaximal cycling efficiency. Acta Physiol Scand 2001; 173(3): 275–86

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  152. Grassi B, Marzorati M, Kayser B, et al. Peak blood lactate and blood lactate vs. workload during acclimatization to 5050m and in deacclimatization. J Appl Physiol 1996; 80(2): 685–92

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  153. Green HJ, Roy B, Grant S, et al. Increases in submaximal cycling efficiency mediated by altitude acclimatization. J Appl Physiol 2000; 89(3): 1189–97

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  154. Hochachka PW, Stanley C, Matheson GO, et al. Metabolic and work efficiencies during exercise in Andean natives. J Appl Physiol 1991; 70(4): 1720–30

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  155. Katayama K, Matsuo M, Ishida K, et al. Intermittent hypoxia improves endurance performance and submaximal efficiency. High Alt Med Biol 2003; 4(3): 291–304

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  156. Levine BD, Stray-Gundersen J. ‘Living high-training low’: effect of moderate-altitude acclimatization with low-altitude training on performance. J Appl Physiol 1997; 83(1): 102–12

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  157. MacDonald MJ, Green HJ, Naylor HL, et al. Reduced oxygen uptake during steady state exercise after 21-day mountain climbing expedition to 6,194 m. Can J Appl Physiol 2001; 26(2): 143–56

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  158. Mairbaurl H, Schobersberger W, Humpeler E, et al. Beneficial effects of exercising at moderate altitude on red cell oxygen transport and on exercise performance. Pflugers Arch 1986; 406(6): 594–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  159. Piehl Aulin K, Svedenhag J, Wide L, et al. Short-term intermittent normobaric hypoxia: haematological, physiological and mental effects. Scand J Med Sci Sports 1998; 8(3): 132–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  160. Roberts AC, Butterfield GE, Cymerman A, et al. Acclimatization to 4300m altitude decreases reliance on fat as a substrate. J Appl Physiol 1996; 81(4): 1762–71

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  161. Rusko HR. New aspects of altitude training. Am J Sports Med 1996; 24 (6 Suppl.): S48–52

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  162. Schmidt W, Heinicke K, Rojas J, et al. Blood volume and hemoglobin mass in endurance athletes from moderate altitude. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2002; 34(12): 1934–40

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  163. Stray-Gundersen J, Chapman RF, Levine BD. ‘Living high-training low’ altitude training improves sea level performance in male and female elite runners. J Appl Physiol 2001; 91(3): 1113–20

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  164. Telford RD, Graham KS, Sutton JR, et al. Medium altitude training and sea level performance [abstract]. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1996; 28 (5 Suppl.): S124

    Google Scholar 

  165. van Hall G, Calbet JA, Sondergaard H, et al. The re-establishment of the normal blood lactate response to exercise in humans after prolonged acclimatization to altitude. J Physiol 2001; 536 (Pt 3): 963–75

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  166. Wilber R. Altitude training for the enhancement of sea level endurance performance. Olympic Coach 1995; 5: 6–10

    Google Scholar 

  167. Wolfel EE, Groves BM, Brooks GA, et al. Oxygen transport during steady-state submaximal exercise in chronic hypoxia. J Appl Physiol 1991; 70(3): 1129–36

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  168. Young AJ, Evans WJ, Cymerman A, et al. Sparing effect of chronic high-altitude exposure on muscle glycogen utilization. J Appl Physiol 1982; 52(4): 857–62

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  169. Wilber RL. Current trends in altitude training. Sports Med 2001; 31(4): 249–65

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  170. Sutton JR, Reeves JT, Wagner PD, et al. Operation Everest II: oxygen transport during exercise at extreme simulated altitude. J Appl Physiol 1988; 64(4): 1309–21

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  171. Katayama K, Sato K, Matsuo H, et al. Effect of intermittent hypoxia on oxygen uptake during submaximal exercise in endurance athletes. Eur J Appl Physiol. Epub 2004 Feb 26

    Google Scholar 

  172. Saunders PU, Telford RD, Pyne DB, et al. Improved running economy in elite runners after 20 days of simulated moderate-altitude exposure. J Appl Physiol 2004; 96(3): 931–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  173. Newsholme EA, Leech AR. Biochemistry for the medical sciences. New York: Wiley, 1983: 357–79

    Google Scholar 

  174. Saltin B, Larsen H, Terrados N, et al. Aerobic exercise capacity at sea level and at altitude in Kenyan boys, junior and senior runners compared with Scandinavian runners. Scand J Med Sci Sports 1995; 5(4): 209–21

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  175. Weston AR, Karamizrak O, Smith A, et al. African runners exhibit greater fatigue resistance, lower lactate accumulation, and higher oxidative enzyme activity. J Appl Physiol 1999; 86(3): 915–23

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  176. Green HJ, Sutton JR, Wolfel EE, et al. Altitude acclimatization and energy metabolic adaptations in skeletal muscle during exercise. J Appl Physiol 1992; 73(6): 2701–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  177. Gollnick PD, Saltin B. Significance of skeletal muscle oxidative enzyme enhancement with endurance training. Clin Physiol 1982; 2(1): 1–12

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  178. Svedenhag J. Running economy. In: Bangsbo J, Larsen H, editors. Running and science. Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 2000: 85–105

    Google Scholar 

  179. Telford RD, Kovacic JC, Skinner SL, et al. Resting whole blood viscosity of elite rowers is related to performance. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1994; 68(6): 470–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors have provided no information on sources of funding or on conflicts of interest directly relevant to the content of this review.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Physiology, Australian Institute of Sport, PO Box 176, Belconnen, ACT, 2616, Australia

    Philo U. Saunders & David B. Pyne

  2. Exercise Metabolism Group, Faculty of Medical Sciences, RMIT University, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia

    Philo U. Saunders & John A. Hawley

  3. School of Physiotherapy and Exercise Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia

    Richard D. Telford

Authors
  1. Philo U. Saunders
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. David B. Pyne
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Richard D. Telford
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. John A. Hawley
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Philo U. Saunders.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Saunders, P.U., Pyne, D.B., Telford, R.D. et al. Factors Affecting Running Economy in Trained Distance Runners. Sports Med 34, 465–485 (2004). https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200434070-00005

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200434070-00005

Keywords

  • Ground Reaction Force
  • Stride Length
  • Distance Runner
  • Altitude Training
  • Plyometric Training