Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

A Conceptual Framework for Achieving Performance Enhancing Drug Compliance in Sport

  • Review Article
  • Published:
Sports Medicine Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

There has been, and continues to be, widespread international concern about athletes’ use of banned performance enhancing drugs (PEDs). This concern culminated in the formation of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in November 1999. To date, the main focus on controlling the use of PEDs has been on testing athletes and the development of tests to detect usage. Although athletes’ beliefs and values are known to influence whether or not an athlete will use drugs, little is known about athletes’ beliefs and attitudes, and the limited empirical literature shows little use of behavioural science frameworks to guide research methodology, results interpretation, and intervention implications. Mindful of this in preparing its anti-doping strategy for the 2000 Olympics, the Australian Sports Drug Agency (ASDA) in 1997 commissioned a study to assess the extent to which models of attitude-behaviour change in the public health/injury prevention literature had useful implications for compliance campaigns in the sport drug area. A preliminary compliance model was developed from three behavioural science frameworks: social cognition models; threat (or fear) appeals; and instrumental and normative approaches. A subsequent review of the performance enhancing drug literature confirmed that the overall framework was consistent with known empirical data, and therefore had at least face validity if not construct validity. The overall model showed six major inputs to an athlete’s attitudes and intentions with respect to performance enhancing drug usage: personality factors, threat appraisal, benefit appraisal, reference group influences, personal morality and legitimacy.

The model demonstrated that a comprehensive, fully integrated programme is necessary for maximal effect, and provides anti-doping agencies with a structured framework for strategic planning and implementing interventions. Programmes can be developed in each of the six major areas, with allocation of resources to each area based on needs-assessment research with athletes and other relevant groups.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Table I

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Australian Sport Drug Agency Annual Report 1994–1995. Canberra (ACT): Australian Sport Drug Agency, 1995

  2. Tricker R, Connolly D. Drug education and the college athlete: evaluation of a decision-making model. J Drug Educ 1996; 26 (2): 159–81

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Binder D. Fair play for kids: a handbook of activities for teaching fair play. 2nd ed. Ottawa (ON): Fair Play Canada, 1995

    Google Scholar 

  4. Goldberg LG, MacKinnon DP, Elliot DL, et al. Effects of a multidimensional anabolic steroid prevention intervention: the adolescents training and learning to avoid steroids (ATLAS) program. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2000; 154: 332–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Verbruggen H. Some reflections for the IOC world conference on doping in sport. Lausanne: Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI), 1999

  6. Donovan RJ, Egger GJ. Drug testing in sport: a review and model for effective control. Perth (WA): Health Promotion Evaluation Unit, Australian Sport Drug Agency, University of Western Australia, 1998

    Google Scholar 

  7. Elder JP, Geller ES, Hovell MF, et al. Motivating health behaviour. New York (NY): Delmar, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  8. Wasserheit JN, Aral SO, Holmes KK, et al. Research issues in human behaviour and sexually transmitted diseases in the AIDS era. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology, 1991

    Google Scholar 

  9. Graeff JA, Elder JP, Booth EM. Communication for health and behaviour change: a developing country perspective. San Francisco (CA): Jossey-Bass, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  10. O’Keefe DJ. Persuasion: theory and research. San Francisco (CA): Sage Publications, 1990

    Google Scholar 

  11. Henley N. Fear arousal in social marketing: death vs non-death threats [doctoral dissertation]. Perth (WA): University of Western Australia, 1997

    Google Scholar 

  12. Donovan RJ, Henley N. Negative outcomes, threats and threat appeals: towards a conceptual framework for the study of fear and other emotions in social marketing communications. Soc Mark Q 1997; 4 (1): 56–67

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Egger G, Donovan RJ, Spark R. Health and the media: principles and practices for health promotion. Sydney: McGraw- Hill Australia, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  14. Marcus BH, Owen N, Forsyth LAH, et al. Physical activity interventions using mass media, print media, and information technology. Am J Prev Med 1998; 15 (4): 362–78

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Egger G, Spark R, Lawson J, et al. Health promotion strategies and methods. Sydney: McGraw-Hill, 1999

    Google Scholar 

  16. Martin MB, Anshel MH. Attitudes of elite adolescent Australian athletes toward drug taking: implications for effective drug prevention programs. Drug Educ J Aust 1991; 5 (3): 223–38

    Google Scholar 

  17. Tricker R, Connolly D. Drugs and the college athlete: an analysis of the attitudes of student athletes at risk. J Drug Educ 1997; 27 (2): 105–19

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Beckett AH, Cowan DA. Misuse of drugs in sport. Br J Sports Med 1979; 12: 185–94

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Beckett AH. Sports injuries: drugs in sport.Br J Hosp Med 1983 Mar; 29 (3): 221–3

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Williams MH. The use of nutritional ergogenic aids in sports: is it an ethical issue? Int J Sport Nutr 1994; 4: 120–31

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Creative Research Group. The body image study: a qualitative study of the use of performance-enhancing drugs by non-athletes. Ottawa (ON): Canadian Centre for Drug-Free Sport, 1992

    Google Scholar 

  22. Boudreau F, Konzak B. Ben Johnson and the use of steroids in sport: sociological and ethical considerations. Can J Sport Sci 1991; 16 (2): 88–98

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Laure P. Doping in sport: doctors are providing drugs. Br J Sports Med 1997; 31 (3): 258–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Bevins J. Using advertising to sell and promote health and healthy products. ACHPER Health Products and Services Marketing Seminar; 1987 Dec 4; Sydney

  25. Borland R, Hill D. Initial impact of the new Australian tobacco warnings on knowledge and beliefs. Tob Control 1997; 6: 317–25

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Job RFS. Effective and ineffective use of fear in health promotion campaigns. Am J Public Health 1988; 78: 163–7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. France A, Donovan RJ, Watson C, et al. A Chlamydia awareness campaign aimed at reducing HIV risks in young adults. Health Promot J Aust 1991; 1: 19–28

    Google Scholar 

  28. Henley N, Donovan RJ. Threat appeals in social marketing: death as ’special case’. Int J Nonprofit Volunt Sect Mark 1999; 4 (4): 1–20

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. King KW, Reid LN. Fear arousing anti-drinking and driving PSAs: do physical injury threats influence young adults? Curr Issues Res 1990; 13: 155–75

    Google Scholar 

  30. Andreasen AR. Marketing social change. San Francisco (CA): Jossey-Bass, 1995

    Google Scholar 

  31. Rice RE, Atkin CK, editors. Public communication campaigns. Newbury Park (CA): Sage, 1989

  32. Salmon CT, editors. Information campaigns: balancing social values and social change. Newbury Park (CA): Sage, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  33. Donovan RJ, Henley N, Jalleh G, et al. Effective road safety advertising: a review and empirical study. Canberra (ACT): Federal Office of Road Safety, 1995

    Google Scholar 

  34. Backer TE, Rogers EM, Sopory P. Designing health communication campaigns: what works?. Newbury Park (CA): Sage, 1992

    Google Scholar 

  35. Sutton SR. Fear-arousing communications: a critical examination of theory and research. In: Eiser JR, editor. Social psychology and behavioural medicine. New York (NY): John Wiley, 1982

    Google Scholar 

  36. Sutton SR. Shock tactics and the myth of the inverted U. Br J Addict 1992; 87: 517–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Boster FJ, Mongeau P. Fear-arousing persuasive messages. Commun Yearb 1984; 8: 330–75

    Google Scholar 

  38. Rogers RW. A protection motivation theory of fear appeals and attitude change. J Psychol 1975; 91: 93–114

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Tanner JF, Day E, Crask MR. Protection motivation theory: an extension of fear appeals theory. J Bus Res 1989; 19: 267–76

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Tanner JF, Hunt JB, Eppright DR. The protection motivation model: a normative model of fear appeals. J Mark 1991; 55: 36–45

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Elliot D, Goldberg L. Intervention and prevention of steroid use in adolescents. Am J Sports Med 1996; 24 (6): S46–7

    Google Scholar 

  42. Becker MH. The health belief model and personal health behavior. Health Educ Monogr 1974; 2: 324–473

    Google Scholar 

  43. Rosenstock IM. What research in motivation suggests for public health. Am J Public Health 1977; 50: 295–302

    Google Scholar 

  44. Clarkson PM, Thompson HS. Drugs and sport: research findings and limitations. Sports Med 1997; 24 (6): 366–84

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Perry HM, Littlepage BNC. Misusing anabolic drugs: take a drug history from well muscled patients. BMJ 1992; 305 (6864): 1241–2

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Wagner JC. Enhancement of athletic performance with drugs: an overview. Sports Med 1991; 12 (4): 250–65

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. deMerode PA. Doping: seeking the causes. Olympic Rev 1998; 26 (23): 5–8

    Google Scholar 

  48. Millar AP. Licit steroid use: hope for the future. Br J Sports Med 1994; 28 (2): 79–83

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Nicholson N, Wynd T, Cohen P. Drugs in sport: performance before health. Health Promot J Aust 1993; 3 (3): 20–2

    Google Scholar 

  50. Mugford S, Mugford J, Donnelly D. Social research project: athletes’ motivations for using or not using performance enhancing drugs. Canberra (ACT): Australian Sports Drug Agency, 1999

    Google Scholar 

  51. Tyler TR. Why people obey the law. New Haven (CT): Yale University Press, 1990

    Google Scholar 

  52. Binder D. Be a champion in life: a book of activities for young people based on the joy of participation and on the important messages of the Olympic philosophy. An international teacher’s resource book. Athens: Foundation of Olympic and Sport Education, 2000

    Google Scholar 

  53. Butcher R, Schneider A. Fair play as respect for the game. J Philos Sport 1998; 25: 1–22

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Guinness R. Tour ethics questionable on drug bans. Weekend Aust 2001 May 19–20; 56

    Google Scholar 

  55. Schneider B, Bowen DE. Understanding customer delight and outrage. Sloan Manage Rev 1999 Fall: 35–45

  56. Cialdini RB. Influence: the new psychology of modern persuasion. New York (NY): Quill, 1984

    Google Scholar 

  57. Mottram DR. Banned drugs in sport. Sports Med 1999; 27 (1): 1–10

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Catlin DH, Murray TH. Performance-enhancing drugs, fair competition, and Olympic sport. JAMA 1996; 276 (3): 231–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. World Conference on Doping in Sport. Doping: reflections of the working groups. Olympic Rev 1999; 26 (23): 15–6

    Google Scholar 

  60. Romance TJ, Weiss MR, Bockoven J. A program to promote moral development through elementary school physical education. J Teach Phys Educ 1986; 5: 126–36

    Google Scholar 

  61. Wadzilak T, Carroll T, Ansorge CJ. Values development through physical activity: promoting sportsmanlike behaviors, perceptions, and moral reasoning. J Teach Phys Educ 1988; 8: 13–22

    Google Scholar 

  62. Bredemeier BJ, Shields DL, Weiss MR, et al. The relationship of sport involvement with children’s moral reasoning and aggression tendencies. Int J Sport Psychol 1986; 8: 304–18

    Google Scholar 

  63. Fishbein M, Ajzen I. Belief, attitude, intention and behaviour: an introduction to theory and research. Reading (MA): Addison-Wesley, 1975

    Google Scholar 

  64. Ajen I, Fishbein M. Understanding attitudes and predicting social behaviour. Englewood Cliffs (NJ): Prentice-Hall, 1980

    Google Scholar 

  65. Bagozzi RP, Warshaw PR. Trying to consume. J Consum Res 1990; 17: 127–40

    Article  Google Scholar 

  66. Anshel MH, Russell KG. Examining athletes’ attitudes toward using anabolic steroids and their knowledge of the possible effects. J Drug Educ 1997; 27 (2): 121–45

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Cialdini RB. Littering: when every litter bit hurts. In: Rice RE, Atkin CK, editors. Public communication campaigns. Newbury Park (CA): Sage, 1989: 221–3

    Google Scholar 

  68. Cialdini RB, Reno RR, Kallgren CA. A focus theory of normative conduct: recycling the concept of norms to reduce littering in public places. J Pers Soc Psychol 1989; 58 (6): 1015–26

    Google Scholar 

  69. Reiterer W. Positive. Sydney: Pan Macmillan, 2000

    Google Scholar 

  70. Black T, Pape A. The ban on drugs in sports. J Sport Soc Issues 1997; 21 (1): 83–92

    Article  Google Scholar 

  71. Brown WM. Ethics, drugs, and sport. J Philos Sport 1980; 7: 15–23

    Article  Google Scholar 

  72. Dingelstad D, Gosden R, Martin B, et al. The social construction of drug debates. Soc Sci Med 1996; 43 (12): 1829–38

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Seligman MEP. Learned optimism. New York (NY): AA Knopf, 1991

    Google Scholar 

  74. Reisman D. The lonely crowd. New Haven (CT): Yale University Press, 1950

    Google Scholar 

  75. Weber K, Roehl WS. An analysis of consumer’s’ risk approach, risk behaviour and risk perception of selected leisure/tourist activities. Symposium on the Consumer Psychology of Travel; 1998; Hawaii. Hilo: University of Hawaii, 1998

    Google Scholar 

  76. Kapernick V. True champions campaign 1998–2000. Canberra (ACT): Australian Sports Drug Agency, 2001

    Google Scholar 

  77. Geller ES. Applied behavior analysis and social marketing: an integration for environmental preservation. J Soc Issues 1989; 45: 17–36

    Article  Google Scholar 

  78. Donovan RJ, Owen N. Social marketing and population interventions. In: Dishman RK, editor. Advances in exercise adherence. 2nd ed. Champaign (IL): Human Kinetic Books, 1994: 249–89

    Google Scholar 

  79. Miller M. Why shock ads catch the eye more than the mind. B&T 1992 April 10: 18–19

    Google Scholar 

  80. Cialdini RB. Social influence and the triple tumour structure of organisational dishonesty. In: Messick DM, Terbrunsel A, editors. Behavioural research and business ethics. New York (NY): Russell Sage, 1997

    Google Scholar 

  81. Deci EL, Ryan RM. The support of autonomy and the control of behaviour. J Pers Soc Psychol 1987; 8: 673–85

    Google Scholar 

  82. Kirkham R, Yates AJ. The effectiveness of police amphometer traps in reducing traffic speed. Perth (WA): Department of Psychology, University of Western Australia, 1974

    Google Scholar 

  83. Teed N, Lund AK, Knoblauch R. The duration of speed reductions attributable to radar detectors. Accid Anal Prev 1993; 25 (2): 131–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Casey SM, Lund AK. The effects of mobile roadside speedometers on traffic speeds. Accid Anal Prev 1993; 25 (5): 627–34

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Shinar D, Stiebel J. The effectiveness of stationary versus moving police vehicles on compliance with speed limit. Hum Factors 1986; 28 (3): 365–71

    Google Scholar 

  86. Donovan RJ. Public health advertising: guidelines for health promotion professionals. Aust Health Promot J 1991; 1: 40–5

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This study was part funded by the Australian Sports Drug Agency (ASDA).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Health Sciences, Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Western Australia, 6102, Australia

    Robert J. Donovan

  2. Centre for Health Promotion and Research, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia

    Garry Egger

  3. School of Human Movement, Deakin University, Melbourne, Australia

    Garry Egger

  4. Australian Sports Drug Agency, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia

    Vicki Kapernick & John Mendoza

Authors
  1. Robert J. Donovan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Garry Egger
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Vicki Kapernick
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. John Mendoza
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Robert J. Donovan.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Donovan, R.J., Egger, G., Kapernick, V. et al. A Conceptual Framework for Achieving Performance Enhancing Drug Compliance in Sport. Sports Med 32, 269–284 (2002). https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200232040-00005

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200232040-00005

Keywords

Search

Navigation