Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Body Fat Assessment in Women

Special Considerations

  • Review Article
  • Published:
Sports Medicine Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Summary

Methods of in vivo body fat estimation are based on simple assumptions about body composition which work reasonably well for men, while estimations in women have been largely extrapolated from the male studies so that women are treated as men with just more of the same fat. Compared to men, fat regulation in women is considerably more elaborate, with more and different sites for storage and a larger proportion of fat distributed to the extremities and in subcutaneous locations. Thus, a ratio of waist-to-hips girth which reflects increasing fatness in men only specifies 2 different extremes of a broader spectrum of possibilities for fat distribution in women. This complicates anthropometric prediction of total fatness and clearly limits the generalisability of any female equations. Anthropometric methods are further confounded by difficulties in the criterion methods against which they are developed. For example, the validity of assumptions about the fractional contributions of bone mineral and body water to fat-free mass and density may not hold through the reproductive cycles. Women athletes involved in weight-bearing or strength training may increase bone mineral content above average values but if they become amenorrhoeic, bone mineral density may fall significantly below average values. Fit premenopausal women distribute fat differently and have a higher bone mineral content than unfit postmenopausal women. Genetic factors which also affect criterion method assumptions in men are superimposed on these additional complications in women. Body fat in female athletes extends across almost the entire range of female fatness, with some of the lowest measurements in distance runners and body builders which fall into the normal male range, but also with some relatively high values in swimmers and strength athletes, which would classify these women as obese by male standards. Thus, total body fat reflects a more complex regulation and has a different meaning to health and performance in women than it does for men. Predictive equations for women athletes should be developed with a view to the specific group and ultimate purpose to which they will be applied.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Allen TH, Peng MT, Chen KP, Huang TF, Chang C, Fang HS. Prediction of total adiposity from skinfolds and the curvilinear relationship between external and internal adiposity. Metabolism 5: 346–352, 1956

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Allen TH, Welch BE, Trujillo TT, Roberts JE. Fat, water and tissue solids of the whole body less its bone mineral. Journal of Applied Physiology 14: 1009–1012, 1959

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arner P, Engfeldt P, Lithel H. Site differences in the basal metabolism of subcutaneous fat in obese women. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 53: 948–952, 1981

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arner P, Lithell H, Wahrenberg H, Bronnegard M. Expression of lipoprotein lipase in different human subcutaneous adipose tissue regions. Journal of Lipid Research 32: 423–429, 1991

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bauer RL, Deyo RA. Low risk of vertebral fracture in Mexican American women. Archives of Internal Medicine 147: 1437–1439, 1987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baumgartner RN, Roche AF, Guo S, Lohman T, Boileau RA, Slaughter MH. Adipose tissue distribution: the stability of principal components by sex, ethnicity and maturation stage. Human Biology 58: 719–735, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Behnke Jr AR, Feen FG, Welham WC. The specific gravity of healthy men: body weight: volume as an index of obesity. Journal of the American Medical Association 118: 495–498, 1942

    Google Scholar 

  • Behnke AR, Wilmore JH. Evaluation and regulation of body build and composition, pp. 33–34, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, 1974

    Google Scholar 

  • Berl T, Better OS. Renal effects of prolactin, estrogen, and progesterone. In Brenner BM & Stein JH (Eds) Hormonal function and the kidney, pp. 194–214, Churchill Livingston, Inc., New York, 1979

    Google Scholar 

  • Bouchard C, Bray GA, Hubbard VS. Basic and clinical aspects of regional fat distribution. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 52: 946–950, 1990

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bouchard C, Perusse L, LeBlanc C, Tremlay A, Theriault G. Inheritance of the amount and distribution of human body fat. International Journal of Obesity 12: 205–215, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bray GA, Greenway FL, Molitch ME, Dahms WT, Atkinson RL, et al. Use of anthropometric measures to assess weight loss. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 31: 769–773, 1978

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brewer MM, Bates MR, Vannoy LP. Postpartum changes in maternal weight and body fat depots in lactating vs nonlactating women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 49: 259–265, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brozek J, Grande F, Anderson JT, Keys A. Densitometric analysis of body composition: revision of some quantitative assumptions. Annals of the New York Academy of Science 110: 113–140, 1963

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bunt JC, Lohman TG, Boileau RA. Impact of total body water fluctuations on estimation of body fat from density. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 21: 96–100, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Butte NF, Wills C, Smith O, Garza C. Prediction of body density from skinfold measurements in lactating women. British Journal of Nutrition 53: 485–489, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Byrd PJ, Thomas TR. Hydrostatic weighing during different stages of the menstrual cycle. Research Quarterly 54: 296–298, 1983

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlberg KA, Buckman MT, Peake GT, Riedesel ML. Body composition of oligo/amenorrheic athletes. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 15: 215–217, 1983

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Casimirri F, Pasquali R, Cesari MP, Melchionda N, Barbara L. Interrelationships between body weight, body fat distribution and insulin in obese women before and after hypocaloric feeding and weight loss. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism 33: 79–87, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chumlea WC, Roche AF, Webb P. Body size, subcutaneous fatness and total body fat in older adults. International Journal of Obesity 8: 311–317, 1984

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clarys JP, Martin AD, Drinkwater DT. Gross tissue weights in human body by cadaver dissection. Human Biology 56: 459–473, 1984

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dohn SH, Abesamis C, Yasumura S, Aloia JF, Zanzi I, et al. Comparative skeletal mass and radial bone mineral content in black and white women. Metabolism 26: 171–178, 1977

    Google Scholar 

  • Cronk CE, Roche AF. Race- and sex-specific reference data for triceps and subscapular skinfolds and weight/stature2. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 35: 347–354, 1982

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dale E, Gerlach DH, Martin DE, Alexander CR. Physical fitness profiles and reproductive physiology of the female distance runner. Physician and Sportsmedicine 7: 83–95, 1979

    Google Scholar 

  • Dalsky GP, Stocke KS, Ehsani AA, Slatopolsky E, Lee WC, et al. Weight-bearing exercise training and lumbar bone mineral content in postmenopausal women. Annals of Internal Medicine 108: 824–828, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Den Tonkelaar I, Seidell JC, Van Noord PA, Baanders-van Hal-ewijn EA, Jacobus JH, et al. Factors influencing waist/hip ratio in randomly selected pre- and post-menopausal women in the DOM-project. International Journal of Obesity 13: 817–824, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Despres JP, Moorjani S, Tremblay A, Ferland M, Lupien PJ, et al. Relation of high plasma triglyceride levels associated with obesity and regional adipose tissue distribution to plasma lipoprotein-lipid composition in premenopausal women. Clinical and Investigative Medicine 12: 374–380, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Deutsch MI, Mueller WH, Malina RM. Androgyny in fat patterning is associated with obesity in adolescents and young adults. Annals of Human Biology 12: 275–286, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dixon JE, Rodin A, Murby B, Chapman MG, Fogelman I. Bone mass in hirsute women with androgen excess. Clinical Endocrinology 30: 271–277, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dowling HG, Pi-Sunyer FX. Effect of race and body fat distribution on carbohydrate metabolism and lipids. Clinical Research 39: 645A, 1991

    Google Scholar 

  • Drinkwater BL, Nilson K, Chestnut CH, Bremner WJ, Schainholtz S, Southworth MB. Bone mineral content in amenorrheic and eumenorrheic athletes. New England Journal of Medicine 311:277–281, 1984

    Google Scholar 

  • Dumont M, Thoomasset A. Les composantes du poids corporel chez la femme enceinte estimees par la mesure de l’impedance electrique globale. Journal de Gynecologie, Obstetrique, et Biologie de la Reproduction 9: 649–653, 1980

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dunaif A, Graf M. Insulin administration alters gonadal steroid metabolism independent of changes in gonadotropin secretion in insulin-resistant women with the polycystic ovary syndrome. Journal of Clinical Investigation 83: 23–29, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Durnin JVGA, Womersley J. Body fat assessed from total body density and its estimation from skinfold thickness: measurements on 481 men and women aged from 16 to 72 years. British Journal of Nutrition 32: 77–97, 1974

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Elliot DL, Goldberg L, Kuehl KS, Catlin DH. Characteristics of anabolic-androgenic steroid-free competitive male and female bodybuilders. Physician and Sportsmedicine 15: 169–179, 1987

    Google Scholar 

  • Enzi G, Gasparo M, Biondetti PR, Fiore D, Semisa M, Zurlo F. Subcutaneous and visceral fat distribution according to sex, age, and overweight, evaluated by computed tomography. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 44: 739–746, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ettinger B, Genant HK, Cann CE. Long-term estrogen replacement therapy prevents bone loss and fractures. Annals of Internal Medicine 102: 319–324, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Evans DJ, Barth JH, Burke CW. Body fat topography in women with androgen excess. International Journal of Obesity 12: 157–162, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Evans DJ, Hoffman RG, Kalkhoff RG, Kissebah AH. Relationship of androgenic activity to body fat topography, fat cell morphology and metabolic aberrations in premenopausal women. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 57: 304–310, 1983

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Evans PE, Israel RG, Flickinger EG, O’Brien KF, Donnelly JE. Hydrostatic weighing without head submersion in morbidly obese females. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 50: 400–403, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Feicht CB, Johnson TS, Martin BJ, Sparkes KE, Wagner Jr WW. Secondary amenorrhea in athletes. Lancet 2: 1145–1146, 1978

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fitzgerald PI, Vogel JA, Daniels WL, Dziados JE, Teves MA, et al. The body composition project: a summary report and descriptive data. US Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine Technical Report T5-87, NTIS AD-A177 679, Natick MA, 1986

    Google Scholar 

  • Fleck SA, Body composition of elite American athletes. American Journal of Sports Medicine 11: 398–403, 1983

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Flegal KM, Harlan WR, Landis JR. Secular trends in body mass index and skinfold thickness with socioeconomic factors in young adult women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 48: 535–543, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Flint MM, Drinkwater BL, Wells CL, Horvath SM. Validity of estimating body fat of females: effect of age and fitness. Human Biology 49: 559–572, 1977

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Forbes GB. Stature and lean body mass. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 27: 595–602, 1974

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Forbes GB. Human body composition — growth, aging, nutrition and activity, p. 172, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1987

    Google Scholar 

  • Forbes GB. The abdomen: hip ratio — normative data and observations on selected patients. International Journal of Obesity 14: 149–157, 1990

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Forbes GB, Lewis AM. Total sodium, potassium and chloride in adult man. Journal of Clinical Investigation 35: 596–600, 1956

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Forsum E, Sadurskis A, Wager J. Estimation of body fat in healthy Swedish women during pregnancy and lactation. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 50: 465–473, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fried SK, Krai JG. Sex differences in regional distribution of fat cell size and lipoprotein lipase activity in morbidly obese patients. International Journal of Obesity 11: 129–140, 1987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Friedl KE, Vogel JA, Bovee MW, Jones BH. Assessment of body weight standards in male and female Army recruits, US Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine Technical Report T15-90, NTIS AD-A224 586, Natick, MA, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  • Friedl KE, Marchitelli LJ, Sherman DE, Tulley R. Nutritional assessment of cadets at the US Military Academy: Part 1. Anthropometric and biochemical measures. US Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine Technical Report T4-91, NTIS AD-A231 918i Natick, MA, 1990

    Google Scholar 

  • Frisancho AR, Flegal PN. Advanced maturation associated with centripetal fat pattern. Human Biology 54: 717–727, 1982

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Frisch RE, McArthur JW. Menstrual cycles: fatness as a determinant of minimum weight for height necessary for their maintenance or onset. Science 185: 949–951, 1974

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fults RD, Morris MS, Johnson HL, Morris RE, Sauberlich HE. Body composition and work performance of cadets at the United States Military Academy, West Point, New York. Letterman Army Institute of Research Technical Report No. 125, NTIS AD-A116 374, Presidio of San Francisco, CA, 1982

    Google Scholar 

  • Garn SM. Fat weight and fat placement in the female. Science 125: 1091–1092, 1957

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Garn SM, Ryan AS, Robson JR. Fatness-dependence and utility of the subscapular/triceps ratio. Ecology of Food and Nutrition 12: 173–177, 1982

    Google Scholar 

  • Garn SM, Sullivan TV, Hawthorne VM. Differential rates of fat change relative to weight change at different body sites. International Journal of Obesity 11: 519–525, 1987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Garrow JS, Stalley S, Diethelm R, Pittet P, Hesp R, et al. A new method for measuring the body density of obese adults. British Journal of Nutrition 42: 173–183, 1979

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Garrow JS, Webster J. Quetelet’s index (w/h2) as a measure of fatness. International Journal of Obesity 9: 147–153, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gillum RF. Overweight and obesity in black women: a review of published data from the National Center for Health Statistics. Journal of the National Medical Association 79: 865–871, 1987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Glass AR, Yahiro JA, Deuster PA. Amenorrhea in Olympic marathon runners. Fertility and Sterility 48: 740–745, 1987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gleichauf Cn, Roe DA. The menstrual cycle’s effect on the reliability of bioimpedance measurements for assessing body composition. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 50: 903–907, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Graves JE, Pollock ML, Sparling PB. Body composition of elite female distance runners. International Journal of Sports Medicine 8 (Suppl.): 96–102, 1987

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haffner SM, Katz MS, Stein MP, Dunn JF. The relationship of sex hormones to hyperinsulinemia and hyperglycemia. Metabolism 37: 683–688, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Haffner SM, Stern MP, Hazuda HP, Pugh J, Patterson JK. Do upper-body and centralized adiposity measure different aspects of regional body-fat distribution? Diabetes 36: 43–51, 1987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Haffner SM, Stern MP, Hazuda HP, Pugh J, Patterson JK, et al. Upper body and centralized adiposity in Mexican Americans and non-Hispanic whites: relationship to body mass index and other behavioral and demographic variables. International Journal of Obesity 10: 493–502, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hartz AJ, Rupley DC, Rimm AA. The association of girth measurements with disease in 32,856 women. American Journal of Epidemiology 119: 71–80, 1984

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hediger ML, Katz SH. Fat patterning, overweight, and adrenal androgen interactions in Black adolescent females. Human Biology 58: 585–600, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Heinrich CH, Going SB, Pamenter RW, Perry CD, Boyden TW, et al. Bone mineral content of cyclically menstruating female resistance and endurance trained athletes. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 22: 558–563, 1990

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Heymsfield SB, Lichtman S, Baumgartner RN, Wang J, Kamen Y, et al. Body composition of humans: comparison of two improved four-compartment models that differ in expense, technical complexity, and radiation exposure. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 52: 52–58, 1990

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Heymsfield SB, Wang J, Heshka S, Kehayias JJ, Pierson RN. Dual-photon absorptiometry: comparison of bone mineral and soft tissue mass measurements in vivo with established methods. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 49: 1283–1289, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hodgdon JA, Beckett MB. Prediction of percent body fat for US Navy women from body circumferences and height, Naval Health Research Center Report No. 84-29, San Diego, CA, 1984

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson AS. Research design and analysis of data procedures for predicting body density. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 16: 616–620, 1984

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson AS, Pollock ML, Ward A. Generalized equations for predicting body density of women. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 12: 175–182, 1980

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jensen J, Christiansen C, Rodbro P. Cigarette smoking, serum estrogens, and bone loss during hormone-replacement therapy early after menopause, New England Journal of Medicine 313: 973–975, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johnston CC, Hui SL, Witt RM, Appledorn R, Baker RS, et al. Early menopausal changes in bone mass and sex steroids. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 61: 905–911, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Katch FI, McArdle WD. Prediction of body density from simple anthropometric measurements in college-age men and women. Human Biology 45: 445–454, 1973

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Katch VI, Campaigne B, Freedson P, Sady S, Katch FI, et al. Contribution of breast volume and weight to body fat distribution in females. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 53: 93–100, 1980

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Killinger DW, Perel E, Daniilescue D, Kharlip L, Lindsay WRN. The relationship between aromatase activity and body fat distribution. Steroids 50: 61–72, 1987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • King MA, Katch FI. Changes in body density, fatfolds and girths at 2.3 kg increments of weight loss. Human Biology 58: 709–718, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kirschner MA, Samojlik E, Drejka M, Szmal E, Schneider G, et al. Androgenestrogen metabolism in women with upper body versus lower body obesity. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 70: 473-479, 1990

    Google Scholar 

  • Knapik JJ, Burse RL, Vogel JA, Height, weight, percent body fat, and indices of adiposity for young men and women entering the US Army. Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine 54: 223–231, 1983

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Krotkiewski M, Bjorntorp P. Muscle tissue in obesity with different distribution of adipose tissue: effects of physical training. International Journal of Obesity 10: 331–341, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Krotkiewski M, Bjorntorp P, Sjostrom L, Smith U. Impact of obesity on metabolism in men and women. Importance of regional adipose tissue distribution. Journal of Clinical Investigation 72: 1150–1162, 1983

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kuczmarski RJ, Fanelli MT, Koch GG. Ultrasonic assessment of body composition in obese adults: overcoming the limitations of the skinfold caliper. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 45: 717–724, 1987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kumanyika S. Diet and chronic disease issues for minority populations, Journal of Nutrition Education 22: 89–96, 1990

    Google Scholar 

  • Kvist H, Sjostrom L, Tylen U. Adipose tissue volume determinations in women by computed tomography: technical considerations. International Journal of Obesity 10: 53–67, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lanska DJ, Lanska MJ, Hartz AJ, Rimm AA. Factors influencing anatomic location of fat tissue in 52,953 women. International Journal of Obesity 9: 29–38, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lapidus L, Bengtsson C, Hallstrom T, Bjorntorp P. Obesity, Adipose tissue distribution and health in women — results from a population study in Gothenburg, Sweden. Appetite 12: 25–35, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  • Lapidus L, Bengtsson C, Larsson B, Pennert K, Rybo F, et al. Distribution of adipose tissue and risk of cardiovascular disease and death: 12 year follow-up of participants in the population study of women in Gothenburg, Sweden. British Medical Journal 289: 1261–1263, 1984

    Google Scholar 

  • Leonhardt W, Hanefeld M, Julius U, Schulze J, Fischer S, et al. Preditive value of the index of desirable body weight for total body fat mass as measured by dilution of tritiated water: problems and limitations. International Journal of Obesity 11: 221–228, 1987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liel Y, Edwards J, Shary J, Spicer KM, Gordon L, Bell NH. The effects of race and body habitus on bone mineral density of the radius, hip, and spine in premenopausal women. Journal of CLinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 66: 1247–1250, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lindberg JS, Fears WB, Hunt MM. Exercise-induced amenorrhea and bone density. Annals of Internal Medicine 101: 647–648, 1984

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lindberg UB, Crona N, Silfverstolpe G, Bjorntrop P, Rebuffe-Scrive M. Regional adipose tissue metabolism in postmenopausal women after treatment with exogenous sex steroids. Hormone and Metabolic Research 22: 345–351, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  • Lohman TG, Pollock ML, Slaughter MH, Brandon LJ, Boileau RA. Methodological factors and the prediction of body fat in female athletes. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 16: 92–96, 1984b

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lohman TG, Slaughter MH, Boileau RA, Bunt J, Lussier L. Bone mineral measurements and their relation to body density in children, youth and adults. Human Biology 56: 667–679, 1984a

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Loucks AB, Callister R, Shay M, Tome L, Watts J. Induction and prevention of low T3 syndrome in exercising women, p. 341, Program and Abstracts of the 73rd Annual Meeting of the Endocrine Society, Washington, D.C., 19–22 June 1991

    Google Scholar 

  • Loucks AB, Horvath SM. Athletic amenorrhea: A review. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 17: 56–72, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Loucks AB, Horvath SM, Freedson PS. Menstrual status and validation of body fat prediction in athletes. Human Biology 56: 383–392, 1984

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Luckey MM, Meier DE, Mandeli JP, DaCosta MC, Hubbard ML, et al. Radial and vertebral bone density in white and black women: evidence for racial differences in premenopausal bone homeostasis. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 69: 762–770, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lukaski HC, Bolonchuk WW, Hall CB, Siders WA. Validation of tetrapolar bioelectrical impedance method to assess human body composition. Journal of Applied Physiology 60: 1327–1332, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lundgren H, Bengtsson C, Glohme G, Lapidus L, Sjostrom L. Adiposity and adipose tissue distribution in relation to incidence of diabetes in women: results from a prospective population study in Gothenburg, Sweden. International Journal of Obesity 13: 413–423, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Malina RM, Harper AB, Avent HH, Campbell DE. Physique of female track and field athletes. Medicine and Science in Sports 3: 32–38, 1971

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Malina RM, Little BB, Sterm MP, Gaskill SP, Hazuda HP. Ethnic and social class differences in selected anthropometric characteristics of Mexican American and Anglo adults: San Antonio Heart Study. American Journal of Epidemiology 123: 96–112, 1983

    Google Scholar 

  • Marcus RC, Conn C, Madvig P. Menstrual function and bone mass in elite women distance runners. Annals of Internal Medicine 102: 158–163, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Martin AD, Drinkwater DT, Ross WD. Effects of variability in bone density and muscle-to-bone ration on fat-free density. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 21: S115, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  • Mazess RB, Barden HS, Bisek JP, Hansen J. Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry for total-body and regional bone-mineral and soft-tissue composition. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 51: 1106–1112, 1990

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mazess RB, Barden HS, Ohlrich ER. Skeletal and body composition effects of anorexia nervosa. Presented at the International Symposium on In Vivo Body Composition Studies, Toronto, 20–23 June 1989

    Google Scholar 

  • Micozzi MS, Albanes D, Jones DY, Chumlea WC. Correlations of body mass indices with weight, stature, and body composition in men and women in NHANES I and II. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 44: 725–731, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morgan DB, Burkinshaw L. Estimation of non-fat body tissues from measurements of skinfold thickness, total body potassium and total body nitrogen. Clinical Science 65: 407–414, 1983

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mueller WH, Shoup RF, Malina RM. Fat patterning in athletes in relation to ethnic origin and sport. Annals of Human Biology 9: 371–376, 1982

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mueller WH, Wear ML, Hanis CL, Barton SA, Schull WJ. Body circumferences as alternatives to skinfold measurements of body fat distribution in Mexican-Americans. International Journal of Obesity 11: 309–318, 1987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nilas L, Christiansen C. Bone mass and its relationship to age and the menopause. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 65: 697–702, 1987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Noppa H, Andersson M, Bengtsson C, Bruce A, Isaksson B. Long-itudinal studies of anthropometric dtata and body composition: the population study of women in Goteborg, Sweden. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 33: 155–162, 1980

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ortiz O, Daley TL, Wang J, Baumgartner R, Heymsfield S, Pierson Jr RN. Human body composition: validity of two-compartment models in black females. Clinical Research 38: 755A, 1990

    Google Scholar 

  • Pace N, Rathbun EN. Studies on body composition. III. The body water and chemically combined nitrogen content in relation to fat content. Journal of Biological Chemistry 158: 685–691, 1945

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pasquali R, Casimirri F, Plate L, Capelli M. Characterization of obese women with reduced sex hormone-binding globulin concentrations. Hormone and Metabolic Research 22: 303–306, 1990

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pipe NGJ, Smith T, Halliday D, Edmonds CJ, William C, et al. Changes in fat free mass and body water in human normal pregnancy. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 86: 929–940, 1979

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pollock ML, Jackson AS. Research progress in validation of clinical methods of assessing body composition. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 16: 606–613, 1984

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pouliot MC, Despres JP, Nadeau A, Tremblay A, Moorjani S, et al. Associations between regional body fat distribution, fasting plasma free fatty acid levels and glucose tolerance in premenopausal women. International Journal of Obesity 14: 293–302, 1990

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Quandt SA. Changes in maternal postpartum adiposity and infant feeding patterns. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 60: 455–461, 1983

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rebuffe-Scrive M, Anderson B, Olbe L, Bjorntorp P. Metabolism of adipose tissue in intraabdominal depots in severely obese men and women. Metabolism 39: 1021–1025, 1990

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rebuffe-Scrive M, Cullberg G, Lundberg PA, Lindstedt G, Bjorntorp P. Anthropometric variables and metabolism in poly-cycstic ovarian disease. Hormone and Metabolic Research 21: 391–387, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rebuffe-Scrive M, Eldh J, HJafstrom LO, Bjorntorp P. Metabolism of mammary, abdominal, and femoral adipocytes in women before and after menopause. Metabolism 35: 792–797, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rebuffe-Scrive M, Enk L, Crona N, Lonnroth P, Abrahamsson L, et al. Fat cell metabolism in different regions in women: effect of menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and lactation. Journal of Clinical Investigation 75: 1973–1976, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reid IR, Mackie M, Ibbertson HK. Bone mineral content in Polynesian and white New Zealand women. British Medical Journal 292: 1547–1548, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Richelson LS, Wahner HW, Melton LJ, Riggs BL. Relative contributions of aging and estrogen deficiency to postmenopausal bone loss. New England Journal of Medicine 311: 1273–1275, 1984

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Risser WL, Lee EJ, Leblanc A, Poindexter HB, Risser JMH, et al. Bone density in eumenorrheic female college athletes. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 22: 570–574, 1990

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roche AF, Siervogel RM, Chumlea WC, Webb P. Grading body fatness from limited anthropometric data. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 34: 2831–2838, 1981

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rolland MF, Bellisle F, Deheeger M, Pequignot F, Sempe M. Influence of body fat distribution during childhood on body fat distribution in adulthood: a two-decade follow-up study. International Journal of Obesity 14: 473–481, 1990

    Google Scholar 

  • Samojlik E, Kirschner MA, Silber D, Schneider G, Ertel NH. Elevated production and metabolic clearance rates of androgens in morbidly obese women. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 59: 949–953, 1984

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt PJ, Nieman LK, Grover GN, Muller KL, Merriam GR, et al. Lack of effect of induced menses on symptoms in women with premenstrual syndrome. New England Journal of Medicine 324: 1174–1179, 1991

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schutte JE, Townsend EJ, Hugg J, Shoup RF, Malina RM, et al. Density of lean body mass is greater in Blacks than in Whites. Journal of Applied Physiology 56: 1647–1649, 1984

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seidell JC, Cigolini M, Chorzewska J, Ellsinger BM, Di Brase G, et al. Androgenicity in relation to body fat distribution and metabolism in 38-year-old women — the European fat distribution study. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 43: 21–34, 1990

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seidell JC, Cigolini M, Deurenberg P, Osterlee A, Doornbos G. Fat distribution, androgens, and metabolism in nonobese women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 50: 269–273, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seidell JC, Osterlee A, Thijssen MAO, Burema J, Deurenberg P, et al. Assessment of intraabdominal and subcutaneous abdominal fat: relation between anthropometry and computed tomography. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 45: 7–13, 1987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seitchik J. Total body water and total body density of pregnant women. Obstetrics and Gynecology 29: 155–166, 1967

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Selinger, A. The body as a three component system, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1977

    Google Scholar 

  • Shephard RJ, Kofsky PR, Harrison JE, McNeill KG, Krondl A. Body composition of older female subjects: new approaches and their limitation. Human Biology 57: 671–686, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sinning WE. Anthropometric estimation of body density, fat, and lean body weight in women gymnasts. Medicine and Science in Sports 10: 243–249, 1978

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Siri WE. Body composition from fluid spaces and density: analysis of methods. In Techniques for measuring body composition, pp. 223–244, National Academy of Science — National Research Council, Washington DC, 1961

    Google Scholar 

  • Sloan AW, Burt JJ, Blyth CS. Estimation of body fat in young women. Journal of Applied Physiology 17: 967–970, 1962

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith EL, GIlligan C. Exercise and bone mass. In DeLuca HF & Mazess R (Eds) Osteoporosis: physiological basis, assessment, and treatment, pp. 285–293, Elsevier Science Publishing Co., Inc., New York, 1990

    Google Scholar 

  • Steingrimsdottir L, Greenwood MR, Brasel JA. Effect of pregnancy, lactation and a high-fat diet on adipose tissue in Os-borne-Mendel rats. Journal of Nutrition 110: 600–609, 1980

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stern MP, Haffner SM. Body fat distribution and hyperinsuli-nemia as risk factors for diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Arteriosclerosis 6: 123–130, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stern MP, Rosenthal M, Haffner SM, Hazuda HP, Franco LJ. Sex difference in the effect of socio-cultural status on diabetes and cardiovascular risk factors in Mexican Americans: San Antonio Heart Study. American Journal of Epidemiology 120: 834–851, 1984

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stillman RJ, Lohman TG, Slaughter MH, Massey BH. Physical activity and bone mineral content in women aged 30 to 85 years. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 18: 576–580, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Taggart NR, Holliday RM, Billewicz WZ, Hytten FE, Thomson AM. Changes in skinfolds during pregnancy. British Journal of Nutrition 21: 439–451, 1967

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Teran JC, Sparks KE, Quinn LM, Fernandez BS, Krey SH, et al. Percent body fat in obese white females predicted by anthropometric measurements. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 53: 7–13, 1991

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas TR, Etheridge GI. Hydrostatic weighing at residual volume and functional residual capacity. Journal of Applied Physiology 49: 157–159, 1980

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thorn GW, Nelson KR, Thorn DW. A study of the mechanism of edema associated with menstruation. Endocrinology 22: 155–163, 1938

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tran ZU, Weltman A. Generalized equation for predicting body density of women from girth measurements. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 21: 101–104, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Trotter M, Hixon BB. Sequential changes in weight, density, and percentage ash weight of human skeletons from an early fetal period through old age. Anatomical Record 179: 1–18, 1974

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vague J. The degree of masculine differentiation of obesities: a factor determining predisposition to diabetes, atherosclerosis, gout and uric calculous disease. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 4: 20–34, 1956

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vansant G, Den Besten C, Weststrate J, Deurenberg P. Body fat distribution and the prognosis for weight reduction: preliminary observations. International Journal of Obesity 12: 133–140, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vogel JA, Friedl KE, Fitzgerald PI. Generalized prediction of body fat in young US females. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 22: S112, 1990

    Google Scholar 

  • Vogel JA, Kirkpatrick JW, Fitzgerald PI, Hodgdon JA, Harman EA. Derivation of anthropometry based body fat equations for the Army’s weight control program. US Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine Technical Report T17-88, Natick, MA, 1988

    Google Scholar 

  • Wadden TA, Stunkard AJ, Johnston FE, Wang J, Pierson RN, et al. Body fat deposition in adult obses women. II. Changes in fat distribution accompanying weight reduction. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 47: 229–234, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Waki M, Mazriegos M, Wang J, Pierson RN, Heymsfied S, et al. Relative expansion of extracellular water in obese women. Clinical Research 38: 761A, 1990

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang J, Haymsfield SB, Aulet M, Thornton JC, Pierson Jr RN. Body fat from body density: underwater weighing vs. dual-photon absorptiometry. American Journal of Physiology 256: E829–E834, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Warner JG, Yeater R, Sherwood L, Weber K. A hydrostatic weighing method using total lung capacity and a small tank. British Journal of Sports Medicine 20: 17–21, 1986

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weits T, van der Beek EJ, Weden M, Ter Haar Romeny BM. Compuated tomography measurement of abdominal fat deposition in relation to anthropometry. International Journal of Obesity 12: 217–225, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Williamson DF, Kahn HS, Remington PL, Anda RF. The 10-year incidence of overweight and major weight gain in US adults. Archives of Internal Medicine 150: 665–672, 1990

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilmore JH, Behnke AR. An anthropometric estimation of body density and lean body weight in young women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 23: 267–274, 1970

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilmore JH, Brown CH, Davis JA. Body physique and composition of the female distance runner. Annals of the New York Academy of Science 301: 764–776, 1977

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Withers RT, Ball CT. A comparison of the effects of measured, predicted, estimated and constant residual volumes on the body density of female athletes. International Journal of Sports Medicine 9: 24–28, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Withers RT, Whittingham NO, Norton KI, Forgia JL, Ellis MW, et al. Relative body fat and anthropometric prediction of body density of female athletes. European Journal of Applied Physiology 56: 169–180, 1987

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wright HF, Dotson CO, Davis PO. An investigation of assessment techniques for body composition of women Marines. US Navy Medicine 71: 15–26, 1980

    Google Scholar 

  • Young CM, Martin MEK, Tensuan R, Blondin J. Predicting specific gravity and body fatness in young women. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 40: 102–107, 1962

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zillikens MC, Conway J. Anthropometry in Blacks: applicability of generalized skinfold equations and differences in fat patterning between Blacks and Whites. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 52: 45–51, 1990

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zinder O, Hamosh M, Fleck TR, Scow RO. Effect of prolactin on lipoprotein in lipase in mammary gland and adipose tissue of rats. American Journal of Physiology 226: 744–748, 1974

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zumoff B, Strain GW, Kream J, O’Connor J, Levin J, et al. Obese young men have elevated plasma estrogen levels but obese premenopausal women do not. Metabolism 30: 1011–1014, 1981

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Occupational Health and Performance Directorate, US Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, Massachusetts, 01746-5007, USA

    James A. Vogel & Karl E. Friedl

Authors
  1. James A. Vogel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Karl E. Friedl
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Additional information

The views, opinions, and findings contained in this article are those of the authors and should not be construed as an official Department of the Army position, policy or decision.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Vogel, J.A., Friedl, K.E. Body Fat Assessment in Women. Sports Medicine 13, 245–269 (1992). https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-199213040-00003

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-199213040-00003

Keywords

Search

Navigation