Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Health Effects of Recreational Running in Women

Some Epidemiological and Preventive Aspects

  • Review Article
  • Published:
Sports Medicine Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Summary

Estimated maximum oxygen uptake of middle-aged nonelite road race entrants is around 45 to 50 ml/kg/min, which is 40 to 100% higher than values from the female general population. Endurance training, low bodyweight, and nonsmoking of runners explain part of, but not the whole, difference in aerobic capacity observed between athletes and the general population. Sedentary women can improve cardiorespiratory fitness through aerobic exercise programmes, and the women with the lowest level of initial fitness have the highest proportional improvement following training. Regularly exercising women have a significantly reduced risk of fatal and nonfatal coronary events, and low cardiorespiratory fitness is associated with an increased risk of death and nonfatal stroke. The influence of habitual running on the female blood lipid profile is not clear. Cross-sectional studies have found elevated HDL cholesterol concentrations in distance runners, but intervention studies on the effect of jogging on lipid and lipoprotein levels have provided equivocal results. A higher level of physical fitness is associated with a lower risk to subsequently develop hypertension. Experimental studies have shown that moderate intensity aerobic exercise (40 to 60% V̇O2max) is able to reduce blood pressure significantly in hypertensive subjects. An athletic lifestyle may be associated with a reduced risk of adult-onset diabetes mellitus (via an exercise-induced increase in insulin sensitivity), and with a reduced risk of cancers of the reproductive system, breast, and colon. Recreational running is also correlated with better weight control.

Surveys of recreational and elite distance runners show a great variability in the prevalence of secondary amenorrhoea, between 1 and 44%. Environmental factors determining the risk of amenorrhoea in runners are low body fat content, mileage, and nutritional inadequacy, with low intakes of calories, protein, and fat. Amenorrhoeic athletes in their third and fourth decade have lower vertebral bone density, which is improved after resumption of menses but does not completely reach age-specific average values. Regardless of menstrual status, the effectiveness of exercise to maintain bone mass throughout life is an important issue. Habitual exercise is associated with increased bone density of the spine both in premenopausal and postmenopausal women. Several controlled training studies suggest that postmenopausal women may at least retard their bone loss with regular aerobic exercise.

Running-related injuries and complaints are common in recreational joggers, even though the reported 1-year incidence, varying between 14 and approximately 50%, depends on injury definition. Mileage and a history of previous running injury are known risk factors. Overweight, irregular menses, and absence of oral contraceptive use have been identified as risk factors in single studies. Female gender itself does not seem to be a major risk factor of running injuries among habitually active subjects, but it may be a relevant factor for sedentary subjects taking up jogging. Regarding the effect of habitual running on the development of osteoarthritis in weight-bearing joints, available data suggest that reasonable recreational exercise, carried out within limits of comfort, putting joints through normal motions, without underlying joint abnormality, even over many years, is unlikely to lead to significant joint injury.

Habitual exercise is associated with reductions in anxiety and depression as well as increased self-esteem. The latter is an empirically supported outcome of exercise, and programmes of aerobic exercise seem also to be effective in reducing state anxiety and symptoms of mild depression. The prevalence of anorexia nervosa among competitive distance runners is not higher than among the general population, but it is the best runners who are most likely to be anorectic. Nonsmoking is highly prevalent among runners, and habitual runners who smoke have a quit rate of roughly 75%, with the rate of smoking cessation being related to mileage. Compared with the general population, age-matched runners have significantly fewer medical consultations, and probably less missed work days.

Little data on the health effects of recreational, in contrast to competitive, running is available, and most epidemiological studies on prevention through exercise suffer from methodological shortcomings that hamper the ability to evaluate the health potential of aerobic exercise in an unbiased way. Nevertheless, there is a broad consensus that an energy expenditure of at least 150 to 400 kcal/day (corresponding to jogging 2.5 to 6 km/day) at a moderate intensity, should be the goal for health-oriented exercise.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Albanes D, Blair A, Taylor PR. Physical activity and risk of cancer in the NHANES I population. American Journal of Public Health 79: 744–750, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Aloia JF, Vasvani AN, Yeh JK, Cohn SH. Premenopausal bone mass is related to physical activity. Archives of Internal Medicine 148: 121–123, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Apple FS, Rhodes M. Enzymatic estimation of skeletal muscle damage by analysis of changes in serum creatine kinase. Journal of Applied Physiology 65: 2598–2600, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Aström J, Ahnqvist S, Beetema J, Jonsson B. Physical activity in women sustaining fracture of the neck of the femur. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery 69-B: 381–383, 1987

    Google Scholar 

  • Balaban EP, Cox JV, Snell P, Vaughan RH, Frenkel EP. The frequency of anemia and iron deficiency in the runner. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 21: 643–648, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Banister EW, Hamilton CL. Variations in iron status with fatigue modelled from training in female distance runners. European Journal of Applied Physiology 54: 16–23, 1985

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barrow GW, Saha S. Menstrual irregularity and stress fractures in collegiate female distance runners. American Journal of Sports Medicine 16: 209–215, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Berning JR, Sanborn CF, Brenner AM, Brooks SM, Wagner WW. Bone density and diet in female runners. Abstract. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 16: 166–167, 1984

    Google Scholar 

  • Blair SN, Goodyear NN, Gibbons LW, Cooper KH. Physical fitness and incidence of hypertension in healthy normotensive men and women. Journal of the American Medical Association 252: 487–490, 1984

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blair SN, Jacobs DR, Powell KE. Relationships between exercise or physical activity and other health habits. Public Health Reports 100: 172–180, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blair SN, Kohl HW. Measurement and evaluation of health behaviors in relationship to physical fitness and physical activity patterns. In Drury (Ed.) Assessing physical fitness and physical activity in population-based surveys, pp. 527–545, Public Health Service, Washington, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  • Blair SN, Kohl HW, Barlow CE. Low cardiorespiratory fitness and incidence of non-fatal stroke. Abstract. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 21 (Suppl.): S49, 1989b

    Google Scholar 

  • Blair SN, Kohl HW, Goodyear N. Rates and risks for running and exercise injuries: studies in three populations. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 58: 221–228, 1987b

    Google Scholar 

  • Blair SN, Kohl HW, Paffenbarger RS, Clark DG, Cooper KH, Gibbons LW. Physical fitness and all-cause mortality: a prospective study of healthy men and women. Journal of the American Medical Association 262: 2395–2401, 1989a

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blair SN, Mulder RT, Kohl HW. Reaction to “Secular trends in adult physical activity: Exercise boom or bust?”. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 58: 106–110, 1987a

    Google Scholar 

  • Block JE, Smith R, Black D, Genant HK. Does exercise prevent osteoporosis? Journal of the American Medical Association 257: 3115–3117, 1987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blum SM, Sherman AR, Boileau RA. The effects of fitness-type exercise on iron status in adult women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 43: 456–463, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blumenthal JA, O’Toole LC, Chang JL. Is running an analogue of anorexia nervosa? An empirical study of obligatory running and anorexia nervosa. Journal of the American Medical Association 252: 520–523, 1984

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bouchard C, Boulay MR, Simoneau JA, Lortie G, Pérusse L. Heredity and trainability of aerobic and anaerobic performances: an update. Sports Medicine 5: 69–73, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bovens AM, Janssen GM, Vermeer HG, et al. Occurrence of running injuries in adults following a supervised training program. International Journal of Sports Medicine 10(Suppl. 3): S186–S190, 1989

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brooks C. Adult physical activity behavior: a trend analysis. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 41: 385–392, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brooks SM, Feicht-Sanborn C, Albrecht BH, Wagner WW. Diet in athletic amenorrhea. Lancet 1: 559–560, 1984

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brownell KD, Bachorik PS, Ayerle RS. Changes in plasma lipid and lipoprotein levels in men and women after a program of moderate exercise. Circulation 65: 477–484, 1982

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brownell KD, Nelson-Steen S, Wilmore J. Weight regulation practices in athletes: analysis of metabolic and health effects. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 19: 546–556, 1987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bullen BA, Skrinar GS, Beitins IZ, et al. Induction of menstrual disorders by strenuous exercise in untrained women. New England Journal of Medicine 312: 1349–1353, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bush TL, Fried LP, Barrett-Connor E. Cholesterol, lipoproteins, and coronary heart disease in women. Clinical Chemistry 34(B): B60–B70, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cann CE, Cavanaugh DJ, Schnurpfiel K, Martin MC. Menstrual history is the primary determinant of trabecular bone density in women runners. Abstract. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 20: S59, 1988

    Google Scholar 

  • Cann CE, Martin MC, Genant HK, Jaffe RB. Decreased spine mineral content in amenorrheic women. Journal of the American Medical Association 251: 626–629, 1984

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cann CE, Martin MC, Jaffe RB. Duration of amenorrhea affects rate of bone loss in women runners: implications for therapy. Abstract. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 17: 214, 1985

    Google Scholar 

  • Carbon RJ, Sambrook PN. Bone density of elite female athletes with stress fractures. Abstract. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 21 (Suppl.): S110, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  • Caspersen CJ, Christenson GM, Pollard RA. Status of the 1990 Physical Fitness and Exercise Objectives — Evidence from NHIS 1985. Public Health Reports 101: 587–592, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cauley JA, Sandler R, LaPorte RE, Kriska A, Horn D, Sashin D. Physical activity and postmenopausal bone loss: results of a 3-year randomized clinical trial. Abstract. American Journal of Epidemiology 124: 525, 1986

    Google Scholar 

  • Chow R, Harrison JE, Notarius C. Effect of two randomised exercise programmes on bone mass of healthy postmenopausal women. British Medical Journal 295: 1441–1444, 1987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clement DB, Taunton JE, Smart GW, McNicol KM. A survey of overuse running injuries. Physician and Sportsmedicine 9: 47–58, 1981

    Google Scholar 

  • Cook SD, Harding AF, Thomas KA, et al. Trabecular bone density and menstrual function in women runners. American Journal of Sports Medicine 15: 503–507, 1987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cress ME, Thomas DP, Agre JC, Cassens RG, Smith EL. Skeletal muscle adaptations to longterm training in elderly women. Abstract. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 21 (Suppl.): S64, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  • Cumming DC, Vickowic MM, Wall SR, Fluker MR. Defects in pulsatile LH release in normally menstruating runners. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 60: 810–812, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dalsky GP. Effect of exercise on bone: permissive influence of estrogen and calcium. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 22: 281–285, 1990

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dalsky GP, Stocke KS, Ehsani AA, et al. Weight-bearing exercise training and lumbar bone mineral content in postmenopausal women. Annals of Internal Medicine 108: 824–828, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dalsky GP, Stocke KS, McMurtry CT, Birge SJ. Comparison of estrogen or exercise on lumbar bone mass in early postmenopausal women. Abstract. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 21 (Suppl.): S110, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  • De Haven KE, Lintner DM. Athletic injuries: comparison by age, sport and gender. American Journal of Sports Medicine 14: 218–224, 1986

    Google Scholar 

  • De Loës M, Goldie l. Incidence rate of injuries during sport activity and physical exercise in a rural Swedish municipality: incidence rates in 17 sports. International Journal of Sports Medicine 9: 461–467, 1988

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Loës M. Medical treatment and costs of sports-related injuries in a total population. International Journal of Sports Medicine 11: 66–72, 1990

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Després JP, Bouchard C, Savard R, et al. Effects of exercise training and detraining on fat cell lipolysis in men and women. European Journal of Applied Physiology 53: 25–30, 1984a

    Google Scholar 

  • Després JP, Bouchard C, Savard R, Tremblay A, Marcotte M, et al. The effect of a 20-week endurance training program on adipose tissue morphology and lipolysis in men and women. Metabolism 33: 235–239, 1984b

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ding JH, Scheckter CB, Drinkwater BL, Soules MR, Bremner WJ. High serum cortisol levels in exercise-associated amenorrhea. Annals of Internal Medicine 108: 530–534, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Drinkwater BL. Assessing fitness and activity patterns of women in general population studies. In Drury (Ed.) Assessing physical fitness and physical activity in population-based surveys, pp. 261–271, Public Health Service, Washington, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  • Drinkwater BL, Bruemner B, Chesnut CH. Menstrual history as a determinant of current bone density in young athletes. Journal of the American Medical Association 263: 545–548, 1990

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Drinkwater BL, Horvath SM, Wells CL. Aerobic power of females, ages 10 to 68. Journal of Gerontology 30: 385–394, 1975

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Drinkwater BL, Nilson K, Chesnut CH, et al. Bone mineral content of amenorrheic and eumenorrheic athletes. New England Journal of Medicine 311: 277–281, 1984

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Drinkwater BL, Nilson K, Ott S, Chesnut CH. Bone mineral density after resumption of menses in amenorrheic runners. Journal of the American Medical Association 256: 380–382, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Durstine JL, Pate RR, Bartoli WP, et al. Apolipoproteins A-I and B in elite women distance runners. Abstract. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 21 (Suppl.): S113, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  • Durstine JL, Pate RR, Sparling PB, et al. Lipid, lipoprotein, and iron status of elite women distance runners. International Journal of Sports Medicine 8 (Suppl.): 119–123, 1987

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eichner ER. Exercise and heart disease: epidemiology of the “exercise hypothesis”. American Journal of Medicine 75: 1008–1023, 1983

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eichner ER. Gastrointestinal bleeding in athletes. Physician and Sportmedicine 17: 128–140, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  • Epstein LH, Wing RR. Aerobic exercise and weight. Addictive Behaviors 5: 371–388, 1980

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Farmer ME, Locke BZ, Moscicki EK, et al. Physical activity and depressive symptoms: the NHANES I epidemiologic follow-up study. American Journal of Epidemiology 128: 1340–1351, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Farrell PA, Barboriak J. The time course of alterations in plasma lipid and lipoprotein concentrations during 8 weeks of endurance training. Atherosclerosis 37: 231–238, 1980

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Feicht CB, Johnson TS, Martin BJ, Sparks KE, Wagner WW. Secondary amenorrhea in athletes. Lancet 2: 1145–1146, 1978

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Feicht-Sanborn C, Martin BJ, Wagner WW. Is athletic amenorrhea specific to runners? American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 143: 859–861, 1982

    Google Scholar 

  • Folsom AR, Caspersen CJ, Taylor HL, et al. Leisure-time physical activity and its relationship to coronary risk factors in a population-based sample: the Minnesota Heart Survey. American Journal of Epidemiology 121: 570–579, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Frey MAB, Doerr BM, Laubach LL, Mann BL, Glueck CJ. Exercise does not change high density lipoprotein cholesterol in women after 10 weeks of training. Metabolism 31: 1142–1146, 1982

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fries JF, Green LW, Levine S. Health promotion and the compression of morbidity. Lancet 1: 481–483, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Frisch RE, McArthur JW. Menstrual cycles: fatness as a determinant of minimum weight for height necessary for their maintenance or onset. Science 185: 949–951, 1974

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Frisch RE, Gotz-Welberger AV, McArthur JW, et al. Delayed menarche and amenorrhea of college athletes in relation to age of onset of training. Journal of the American Medical Association 246: 1559–1563, 1981

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Frisch RE, Wyshak G, Albright NL, et al. Lower prevalence of breast cancer and cancers of the reproductive system among former college athletes compared to non-athletes. British Journal of Cancer 52: 885–891, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Frisch RE, Wyshak G, Albright TE, Albright NL, Schiff I. Lower prevalence of diabetes in female former athletes compared with nonathletes. Diabetes 35: 1101–1105, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Frisch RE, Wyshak G, Albright NL, Albright TE, Schiff I. Lower prevalence of nonreproductive system cancers among female former college athletes. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 21: 250–253, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gerhardsson M, Floderus B, Norell SE. Physical activity and colon cancer risk. International Journal of Epidemiology 17: 743–746, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg L, Elliot DL. The effect of exercise on lipid metabolism in men and women. Sports Medicine 4: 307–321, 1987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Graves JE, Pollock ML, Sparling PB. Body composition of elite female distance runners. International Journal of Sports Medicine 8 (Suppl.): 96–102, 1987

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gutzwiller F, Junod B, Schweizer W (Eds.) Wirksamkeit der gemeindeorientierten Prävention kardiovaskulärer Krankheiten (NFP-1A), pp. 236–237, Hans Huber, Bern, 1985

    Google Scholar 

  • Gwinup G. Weight loss without dietary restriction: efficacy of different forms of aerobic exercise. American Journal of Sports Medicine 15: 275–279, 1987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hagberg JM. Exercise, fitness, and hypertension. In Bouchard C et al. (Eds) Exercise, fitness and health: a consensus of current knowledge, pp. 455–466, Human Kinetics Publishers, Champaign, IL, 1990

    Google Scholar 

  • Hagberg JM, Seals DR. Exercise training and hypertension. Acta Medica Scandinavica Suppl. 711: 131–136, 1986

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hagberg JM, Graves JE, Limacher M, et al. Cardiovascular responses of 70–79 year old men and women to endurance and strength training. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 21 (Suppl.): S95, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  • Hardman AE, Hudson A, Jones PR, Norgan NG. Brisk walking and plasma high density lipoprotein cholesterol concentration in previously sedentary women. British Medical Journal 299: 1204–1205, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hardman A, Jones PR, Hudson A, Norgan NG. Brisk walking and high density lipoprotein cholesterol. Correspondence. British Medical Journal 300: 195–196, 1990

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris SS, Caspersen CJ, De Friese GH, Estes EH. Physical activity counseling for healthy adults as a primary prevention intervention in the clinical setting. Journal of the American Medical Association 261: 3588–3598, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hart LE, Walter SD, Mclntosh JM, Sutton JR. The effect of stretching and warmup on the development of musculoskeletal injuries in distance runners. Abstract. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 21 (Suppl.): S59, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  • Haskell WL, Taylor HL, Wood PD, Schrott H, Heiss G. Strenuous physical activity, treadmill exercise test performance and plasma high density lipoprotein cholesterol: the Lipid Research Clinics Program Prevalence Study. Circulation 62(Suppl. IV): 53–61, 1980

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Haskell WL. Physical activity and health: need to define the required stimulus. American Journal of Cardiology 55: 4D–9D, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Haycock CE, Gillette JV. Susceptibility of women athletes to injury: myths vs. reality. Journal of the American Medical Association 236: 163–165, 1976

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Haymes EM, Spillman DM. Iron status of women distance runners, sprinters, and control women. International Journal of Sports Medicine 10: 430–433, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Heath GW, Kendrick JS. A behavioral risk profile of runners in the United States. Abstract. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 21 (Suppl.): S94, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  • Hersey WC, Hagberg J, Graves J, Ginerich R, Pollock ML. Effect of exercise training on glucose metabolism in healthy 70–79 year old men and women. Abstract. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 21 (Suppl.): S45, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  • Hickson RC, Hagberg JM, Ehsani AA, Holloszy JO. Time course of the adaptive response of aerobic power and heart rate to training. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 13: 17–20, 1981

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Highet R. Athletic amenorrhea: an update on aetiology, complications and management. Sports Medicine 7: 82–108, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hill JO, Sparling PB, Shields TW, Heller PA. Effects of exercise and food restriction on body composition and metabolic rate in obese women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 46: 622–630, 1987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Holloszy JO, Schultz J, Kusni J, Hagberg JM, Ehsani AA. Effects of exercise on glucose tolerance and insulin resistance: brief review and some preliminary results. Acta Medica Scandinav-ica Suppl. 711: 55–65, 1986

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoppeler H, Howald H, Conley K, et al. Endurance training in humans: aerobic capacity and structure of skeletal muscle. Journal of Applied Physiology 59: 320–327, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobs SJ, Berson BL. Injuries to runners: a study of entrants to a 10,000 meter race. American Journal of Sports Medicine 14: 151–155, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Janssen GM, Graef CJ, Saris WH. Food intake and body composition in novice athletes during a training period to run a marathon. International Journal of Sports Medicine 10(Suppl. 1): S17–S21, 1989

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jasnoski ML, Holmes DS, Banks DL. Changes in personality associated with changes in aerobic and anaerobic fitness in women and men. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 32: 273–276, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jennings G, Nelson L, Nestel P, et al. The effects of changes in physical activity on major cardiovascular risk factors, hemo-dynamics, sympathetic function, and glucose utilization in man: a controlled study of four levels of activity. Circulation 73: 30–40, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johansson S, Bondjers G, Fager G, et al. Serum lipids and apolipoprotein levels in women with acute myocardial infarction. Arteriosclerosis 8: 742–749, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Josza L, Kvist M, Balint BJ, et al. The role of recreational sport activity in Achilles tendon rupture. A clinical, pathoanatomical, and sociological study of 292 cases. American Journal of Sports Medicine 17: 338–343, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaiserauer S, Snyder AC, Sleeper M, Zierath J. Nutritional, physiological, and menstrual status of distance runners. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 21: 120–125, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kanders BS, Lindsay R. The effect of physical activity and calcium intake on the bone density of young women aged 24–35. Abstract. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 17: 284–285, 1985

    Google Scholar 

  • Kannel WB, Sorlie P. Some health benefits of physical activity: the Framingham Study. Archives of Internal Medicine 139: 857–861, 1979

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kavanagh T, Shephard RJ. The effects of continued training on the aging process. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 301: 656–670, 1977

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kerr G, Fowler B. The relationship between psychological factors and sports injuries. Sports Medicine 6: 127–134, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • King DS, Dalsky GP, Clutter WE, et al. Effects of exercise and lack of exercise on insulin sensitivity and responsiveness. Journal of Applied Physiology 64: 1942–1946, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • King DS, Dalsky GP, Staten MA, et al. Insulin action and secretion in endurance-trained and untrained humans. Journal of Applied Physiology 63: 2247–2252, 1987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kiyonaga A, Arakawa K, Tanaka H, Shindo M. Blood pressure and hormonal responses to aerobic exercise. Hypertension 7: 125–131, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kohl HW, La Porte RE, Blair SN. Physical activity and cancer: an epidemiological perspective. Sports Medicine 6: 222–237, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kohrt W, Malley M, Ehsani AA, Holloszy JO. Effect of endurance exercise training on the body composition of older adults. Abstract. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 21 (Suppl.): S74, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  • Koplan JP, Powell KE, Sikes RK, Shirley RW, Campbell CC. An epidemiologic study of the benefits and risks of running. Journal of the American Medical Association 248: 3118–3121, 1982

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Koplan JP, Siscovick DS, Goldbaum GM. The risks of exercise: a public health view of injuries and hazards. Public Health Reports 100: 189–195, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Koplan JP, Caspersen CJ, Powell KE. Physical activity, physical fitness, and health: time to act. Journal of the American Medical Association 262: 2437, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kraus JF, Conroy C. Mortality and morbidity from injury in sports and recreation. Annual Reviews of Public Health 5: 163–192, 1984

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Krölner B, Toft B, Nielsen SP, Töndevold E. Physical exercise as a prophylaxis against involutional vertebral bone loss: a controlled trial. Clinical Science 64: 541–546, 1983

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krotkiewski M, Björntorp P. Muscle tissue in obesity with different distribution of adipose tissue: effects of physical training. International Journal of Obesity 10: 331–341, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kukkonen K, Rauramaa R, Siitonen O, Hänninen O. Physical training of obese middle-aged persons. Annals of Clinical Research 14(Suppl. 34): 80–85, 1982

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kujala UM, Kvist M, Österman K. Knee injuries in athletes: review of exertion injuries and retrospective study of outpatient sports clinic material. Sports Medicine 3: 447–460, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kujala UM, Österman K, Kormano M, Komu M, Schlenzka D. Patellar motion analyzed by magnetic resonance imaging. Acta Orthopaedica Scandinavica 60: 13–16, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lane NE, Bloch DA, Jones HH, Marshall WH, Wood PD, Fries JF. Long-distance running, bone density, and osteoarthritis. Journal of the American Medical Association 255: 1147–1151, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lane NE, Bloch DA, Wood PD, Fries JF. Aging, long-distance running and the development of musculoskeletal disability. American Journal of Medicine 82: 772–780, 1987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lapidus L, Bengtsson C. Socioeconomic factors and physical activity in relation to cardiovascular disease and death: a 12-year follow-up in a study of women in Gothenburg, Sweden. British Heart Journal 55: 295–301, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lapidus L, Bengtsson C, Lindqvist O, Sigurdsson JA, Rybo E. Triglycerides — main lipid risk factor for cardiovascular disease in women. Acta Medica Scandinavica 217: 481–489, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis DA, Kamon E, Hodgson JL. Physiological differences between genders: implications for sports conditioning. Sports Medicine 3: 357–369, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lindberg JS, Fears WB, Hunt MM, et al. Exercise-induced amenorrhea and bone density. Annals of Internal Medicine 101: 647–648, 1984

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Linnell SL, Stager JM, Blue PW, Oyster N, Robertshaw D. Bone mineral content and menstrual regularity in female runners. Medicine and Science in Sportsand Exercise 16: 343–348, 1984

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lloyd T, Triantafyllou SJ, Baker ER, et al. Women athletes with menstrual irregularity have increased musculoskeletal injuries. Medicine and Science in Sportsand Exercise 18: 374–379, 1986

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lloyd T, Buchanan JR, Bitzer S, et al. Interrelationships of diet, athletic activity, menstrual status, and bone density in collegiate women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 46: 681–684, 1987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lokey EA, Tran ZV. Effects of exercise training on serum lipid and lipoprotein concentrations in women: a meta-analysis. International Journal of Sports Medicine 10: 424–429, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Loucks AB. Effects of exercise training on the menstrual cycle: existence and mechanisms. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 22: 275–280, 1990

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Loucks AB, Horvath SM. Athletic amenorrhea: a review. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 17: 56–72, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Loucks AB, Mortola JF, Girton L, Yen SS. Alterations in the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axes in athletic women. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 68: 402–411, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lutter JM, Cushman S. Menstrual pattern in female runners. Physician and Sportsmedicine 10: 60–72, 1982

    Google Scholar 

  • Macera CA, Pate RR, Davis DR. Musculoskeletal problems in habitual runners. Abstract. American Journal of Epidemiology 130: 848, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  • Macera CA, Pate RR, Davis DR. Runners’ health habits 1985 -“the Alameda 7” revisited. Public Health Reports 104: 341–349, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Macera CA, Pate RR, Kendrick JS, et al. Lower extremity injuries in habitual runners. Abstract. American Journal of Epidemiology 126: 775, 1987

    Google Scholar 

  • Magnus K, Matroos A, Strackee J. Walking, cycling, or gardening, with or without seasonal interruption, in relation to acute coronary events. American Journal of Epidemiology 110: 724–733, 1979

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marcus R, Cann C, Madvig P, et al. Menstrual function and bone mass in elite women distance runners. Annals of Internal Medicine 102: 158–163, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marti B. Benefits and risks of running among women: an epidemiologic study. International Journal of Sports Medicine 9: 92–98, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marti B, Abelin T, Minder CE. Relationship of training and lifestyle to 16km running time of 4000 joggers (the ‘84 Berne “Grand-Prix” Study). International Journal of Sports Medicine 9: 85–91, 1988b

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marti B, Goerre S, Spuhler T, Schaffner T, Gutzwiller F. Plötzliche Todesfälle an Schweizer Volksläufen 1978–1987: eine epidemiologisch-pathologische Studie. Schweizerische Medizinische Wochenschrift 119: 473–482, 1989a

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marti B, Gutzwiller F, Wietlisbach V. Physische Aktivität und Sport der Schweizer Bevölkerung–epidemiologische Ergebnisse von SOMIPOPS (NFP-8). Schweizerische Rundschau für Medizin (PRAXIS) 75: 1420–1426, 1986

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marti B, Knobloch M, Tschopp A, Jucker A, Howald H. Is excessive running predictive of degenerative hip disease? Controlled study of former elite athletes. British Medical Journal 299: 91–93, 1989b

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marti B, Rehmann R. Determinants of physician visit rates among joggers: multivariate analysis of 4000 participants in a popular race. Sozial- und Präventivmedizin 32: 204–206, 1987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marti B, Salonen JT, Tuomilehto J, Puska P. 10-year trends in physical activity in the eastern Finnish adult population: relationship to socioeconomic and lifestyle characteristics. Acta Medica Scandinavica 224: 195–203, 1988a

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marti B, Tuomilehto J, Salonen JT, Puska P, Nissinen A. Relationship between leisure-time physical activity and risk factors for coronary heart disease in middle-aged Finnish women. Acta Medica Scandinavica 222: 223–230, 1987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marti B, Vader JP. Joggers grow old. Correspondence. Lancet 1: 1207, 1987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Martinsen EW, Strand J, Paulsson G, Kaggestad J. Physical fitness level in patients with anxiety and depressive disorders. International Journal of Sports Medicine 10: 58–61, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McCann IL, Holmes DS. Influence of aerobic exercise on depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 46: 1142–1147, 1984

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Messier SP, Pittala KA. Etiologic factors associated with selected running injuries. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 20: 501–505, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Michel BA, Bloch DA, Fries JF. Weight-bearing exercise, over-exercise and lumbar bone density over age 50 years. Archives of Internal Medicine 149: 2325–2329, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moll ME, Williams RS, Lester RM, Quarfordt SH, Wallace AG. Cholesterol metabolism in non-obese women: failure of physical conditioning to alter levels of high density lipoprotein cholesterol. Atherosclerosis 34: 159–166, 1979

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Montoye HJ. Better bones and biodynamics (the 1987 McCloy Research Lecture). Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sports 58: 334–348, 1987

    Google Scholar 

  • Morgan WP. Affective beneficence of vigorous physical activity. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 17: 94–100, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morgan WP, O’Connor PJ, Sparling PB, Pate RR. Psychological characterization of the elite female distance runner. International Journal of Sports Medicine 8 (Suppl.): 124–131, 1987

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moore CE, Hartung GH, Mitchell RE, Kappus CM, Hinderlitter J. The relationship of exercise and diet on high density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in women. Metabolism 32: 189–196, 1983

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moore RL, Thacker EM, Kellery GA, et al. Effect of training/detraining on submaximal exercise responses in humans. Journal of Applied Physiology 63: 1719–1724, 1987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Murray RO, Duncan C. Athletic activity in adolescence as an etiological factor in degenerative hip disease. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery 53-B: 406–419, 1971

    Google Scholar 

  • Nakamura N, Uzawa H, Maeda H, Inomoto T. Physical fitness: its contribution to serum high density lipoprotein. Atherosclerosis 48: 173–183, 1983

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson ME, Fisher EC, Catsos PD, et al. Diet and bone status in amenorrheic runners. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 43: 910–916, 1986b

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson L, Jennings GL, Ester MD, Korner PI. Effect of changing levels of physical activity on blood pressure and haemodyn-amics in essential hypertension. Lancet 2: 473–476, 1986a

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson ME, Meredith CN, Dawson-Hughes B, Evans WJ. Hormone and bone mineral status in endurance-trained and sedentary postmenopausal women. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 66: 927–933, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Newhouse IJ, Clement DB. Iron status in athletes: an update. Sports Medicine 5: 337–352, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nikkilä EA, Taskinen MR, Rehunen S, Härkönen S. Lipoprotein lipase activity in adipose tissue and skeletal muscle of runners: relation to serum lipoproteins. Metabolism 27: 1661–1671, 1978

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Noakes TD, van Gend M. Menstrual dysfunction in female athletes: a review for clinicians. South African Medical Journal 73: 350–355, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • O’Connor GT, Buring JE, Goldhaber SZ, et al. Physical exercise and nonfatal myocardial infarction. Abstract. American Journal of Epidemiology 126: 741–742, 1987

    Google Scholar 

  • Ossip-Klein DJ, Doyne EJ, Bowman ED, et al. Effects of running or weight-lifting on self-concept in clinically depressed women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 57: 158–161, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Paganini-Hill A, Ross RK, Henderson BE. Postmenopausal oestrogen treatment and stroke: a prospective study. British Medical Journal 297: 519–522, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pagliano JF, Jackson DW. A clinical study of 3500 long-distance runners. Congress Book of the Advanced European Course on Sports Medicine, pp. 191–196, Turku, Finland, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  • Panush RS, Brown DG. Exercise and arthritis. Sports Medicine 4: 54–64, 1987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pate RR, Sparling PB, Wilson GE, Cureton KJ, Miller BJ. Cardiorespiratory and metabolic responses to submaximal and maximal exercise in elite women distance runners. International Journal of Sports Medicine 8 (Suppl.): 91–95, 1987

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pedersen PK, Jörgensen K. Maximal oxygen uptake in young women with training, inactivity, and retraining. Medicine and Science in Sports 10: 233–237, 1978

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Perry A, Campbell MH, Kaplan T. Relationship between maximum oxygen uptake and the plasma lipid profile in females. Abstract. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 21 (Suppl.): S113, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  • Petosa S. Women in the Military Academies: US Air Force Academy. Physician and Sportsmedicine 17: 133–142, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  • Pocock NA, Eisman JA, Yeates MG, et al. Physical fitness is a major determinant of femoral neck and lumbar spine bone mineral density. Journal of Clinical Investigation 78: 618–621, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pollock ML, Graves JE, Leggett S, Braith R, Hagberg JM. Injuries and adherence to aerobic and strength training exercise programs for the elderly. Abstract. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 21 (Suppl.): S59, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  • Porcari JP, Ward A, Morgan WP, et al. Effect of walking on state anxiety and blood pressure. Abstract. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 20 (Suppl.): S85, 1988

    Google Scholar 

  • Powell KE, Caspersen CJ, Koplan JP, Ford ES. Physical activity and chronic diseases. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 49: 999–1006, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Powell KP, Kohl HW, Caspersen CJ, Blair SN. An epidemiological perspective on the causes of running injuries. Physician and Sportsmedicine 14: 31–42, 1986

    Google Scholar 

  • Powell KE, Thompson PD, Caspersen CJ, Kendrick JS. Physical activity and the incidence of coronary heart disease. Annual Reviews of Public Health 8: 253–287, 1987

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Prior JC, Vigna Y, Alojada N. Conditioning exercise decreases premenstrual symptoms. European Journal of Applied Physiology 55: 349–355, 1986

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Renström P, Johnson RJ. Overuse injuries in sports: a review. Sports Medicine 2: 316–333, 1985

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Redmond G. Historical aspects of fitness in the modern world. In Malina RM & Eckert HM (Eds) Physical activity in early and modern populations, pp. 23–31, Human Kinetics Books, Champaign, IL, 1988

    Google Scholar 

  • Richter EA, Galbo H. Diabetes, insulin, and exercise. Sports Medicine 3: 275–288, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Risser WL, Lee EJ, Poindexter HB, et al. Iron deficiency in female athletes: its prevalence and impact on performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 20: 116–121, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers MA, Stull AG, Apple FS. Creative kinase isoenzyme activities in men and women following a marathon race. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 17: 679–682, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roman O, Camuzzi AL, Villalon E, Kienner C. Physical training program in arterial hypertension: a long-term prospective follow-up. Cardiology 67: 230–241, 1981

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ross CE, Hayes D. Exercise and psychologic well-being in the community. American Journal of Epidemiology 127: 762–771, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rotkis T, Boyden TW, Pamenter RW, Stanforth P, Wilmore J. High density lipoprotein cholesterol and body composition of female runners. Metabolism 30: 994–995, 1981

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Saar E, Chayot R, Meyerstein N. Physical activity and blood pressure in normotensive young women. European Journal of Applied Physiology 55: 64–67, 1986

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sallis JF, Haskell WL, Wood PD, Fortmann SP, Vranizan KM. Vigorous physical activity and cardiovascular risk factors in young adults. Journal of Chronic Diseases 39: 115–120, 1986a

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sallis JF, Haskell WL, Fortmann SP, Wood PD, Vranizan KM. Moderate-intensity physical activity and cardiovascular risk factors: the Stanford 5-City Project. Preventive Medicine 15: 561–568, 1986b

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sallis JF, Hovell MF, Hofstetter CR, et al. A multivariate study of determinants of vigorous exercise in a community sample. Preventive Medicine 18: 20–34, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Salonen JT, Puska P, Tuomilehto J. Physical activity and risk of myocardial infarction, cerebral stroke, and death. American Journal of Epidemiology 115: 526–537, 1982

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Salonen JT, Slater JS, Tuomilehto J, Rauramaa R. Leisure-time and occupational physical activity: risk of death from ischemic heart disease. American Journal of Epidemiology 127: 87–94, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sanborn CF, Abrecht BH, Wagner WW. Athletic amenorrhea: lack of association with body fat. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 19: 207–212, 1987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Santiago MC, Alexander JF, Stull A, Serfass RC, Hayday AM, et al. Physical responses of sedentary women to a 20-week conditioning program of walking and jogging. Scandinavian Journal of Sports Science 9: 33–39, 1987

    Google Scholar 

  • Santiago MC, Leon AS, Serfass RS. Effects of a 40-week walking program on physical fitness, body composition, and blood lipids in women. Abstract. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 21 (Suppl.): S57, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  • Schoenborn CA, Stephens T. Health promotion in the United States and Canada: smoking, exercise, and other health-related behaviors. American Journal of Public Health 78: 983–984, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Scragg R, Stewart A, Jackson R, Beaglehole R. Alcohol and exercise in myocardial infarction and sudden coronary death in men and women. American Journal of Epidemiology 126: 77–85, 1987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seals DR, Hagberg JM. The effect of exercise training on human hypertension: a review. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 16: 207–215, 1984

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seals DR, Hagberg JM, Hurley BF, Ehsani AA, Holloszy JO. Effects of endurance training on glucose tolerance and plasma lipid levels in older men and women. Journal of the American Medical Association 252: 645–649, 1984

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sedgwick AW, Smith DS, Davies MJ. Musculoskeletal status of men and women who entered a fitness programme. Medical Journal of Australia 148: 385–391, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shangold MM, Levine HS. The effect of marathon training upon menstrual function. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 143: 862–869, 1982

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shangold M, Rebar RW, Wentz AC, Schiff I. Evaluation and management of menstrual dysfunction in athletes. Journal of the American Medical Association 263: 1665–1669, 1990

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shephard RJ. Exercise in coronary heart disease. Sports Medicine 3: 26–49, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shephard RJ. Fitness boom or bust — a Canadian perspective. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 59: 265–269, 1988

    Google Scholar 

  • Siconolfi SF, Lasater TM, McKinlay S, Boggia P, Carleton RA. Physical fitness and blood pressure: the role of age. American Journal of Epidemiology 122: 452–457, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Siscovick DS, Weiss NS, Fletcher RH, Lasky T. The incidence of primary cardiac arrest during vigorous exercise. New England Journal of Medicine 311: 74–77, 1984

    Google Scholar 

  • Slattery ML, Schumacher MC, Smith KR, et al. Physical activity, diet, and risk of colon cancer in Utah. American Journal of Epidemiology 128: 989–999, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Slavin J, Lutter J, Cushman S. Amenorrhea in vegetarian athletes. Lancet 1: 1474–1475, 1984

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith EL, Reddan W, Smith PE. Physical activity and calcium modalities for bone mineral increase in aged women. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 13: 60–64, 1981

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith EL, Raab DM. Osteoporosis and physical activity. Acta Medica Scandinavica Suppl. 711: 149–156, 1986

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Snead D, Tis L, Weltman J, et al. V̇2max Peak strength, reproductive hormones and bone mineral content in eumenorrheic and oligomenorrheic runners. Abstract. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 21 (Suppl.): S111, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  • Sonstroem RJ, Morgan WP. Exercise and self-esteem: rationale and model. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 21: 329–337, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sparling PB, Cureton KJ. Biological determinants of the sex difference in 12-min run performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 15: 218–223, 1984

    Google Scholar 

  • Sparling PB, Wilson GE, Pate RR. Project overview and description of performance, training, and physical characteristics in elite women distance runners. International Journal of Sports Medicine 8 (Suppl.): 73–76, 1987

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stager JM, Wigglesworth JK, Hatler JK. Interpreting the relationship between age of menarche and prepubertal training. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 22: 54–58, 1990

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stephens T. Secular trends in adult physical activity: exercise boom or bust? Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 58: 94–105, 1987

    Google Scholar 

  • Stephens T. Physical activity and mental health in the United States and Canada: evidence from four population surveys. Preventive Medicine 17: 35–47, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stillman RJ, Lohmann TG, Slaughter MH, Massey BH. Physical activity and bone mineral content in women aged 30–85 years. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 18: 576–580, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stillman RJ, Massey H, Boileau RA, Misner JE, Slaughter MH. Bone mass and physical activity level in women. Abstract. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 21 (Suppl.): S111, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson PD, Stern MP, Williams P, et al. Death during jogging or running: a study of 18 cases. Journal of the American Medical Association 242: 1265–1267, 1979

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson PD, Funk EJ, Carleton RA, Sturner WQ. Incidence of death during jogging in Rhode Island from 1975 through 1980. Journal of the American Medical Association 247: 2535–2538, 1982

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Upton SJ, Hagan RD, Lease B, et al. Comparative physiological profiles among young and middle-aged female distance runners. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 16: 67–71, 1984

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Urata H, Tanabe Y, Kiyonaga A, et al. Antihypertensive and volume-depleting effects of mild exercise on essential hypertension. Hypertension 9: 245–252, 1987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vandenbroucke JP, van Laar A, Valkenburg HA. Synergy between thinness and intensive sports activity in delaying menarche. British Medical Journal 284: 1907–1908, 1982

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Verstappen FT, Janssen GM, Does RJ. Effect of endurance training and competition on exercise tests in relatively untrained people. International Journal of Sports Medicine 10(Suppl. 3): S126–S131, 1989

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vogel JA, Patton JF, Mello RP, Daniels WL. An analysis of aerobic capacity in a large United States population. Journal of Applied Physiology 60: 494–500, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vrencken J, Wijnen J, Bovens A, et al. Sports participation and injuries in a middle-aged population, active in sports. Abstract. International Journal of Sports Medicine 9: 389, 1988

    Google Scholar 

  • Vuori I. The cardiovascular risks of physical activity. Acta Medica Scandinavica (Suppl. 711): 205–214, 1986

    Google Scholar 

  • Vuori I. Exercise prescription in medical practice. Annals of Clinical Research 20: 84–93, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Walberg JL. Aerobic exercise and resistance weight-training during weight reduction: implications for obese persons and athletes. Sports Medicine 47: 343–356, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  • Walberg J, Stubbs C, Booth R, et al. Effect of one year of exercise training on dietary selection and fitness. Abstract. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 21 (Suppl.): S43, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  • Walter SD, Sutton JR, Mclntosh JM, Connolly C. The aetiology of sports injuries: a review of methodologies. Sports Medicine 2: 47–58, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Walter SD. Risks of exercising: sudden cardiac death and injuries. In Bouchard et al. (Eds) Exercise, fitness, and health: a consensus of current knowledge, pp. 715–720, Human Kinetics Publishers, Champaign, IL, 1990

    Google Scholar 

  • Weight LM, Noakes TD. Is running an analog of anorexia? a survey of the incidence of eating disorders in female distance runners. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 19: 213–217, 1987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Welch MJ. Women in the Military Academies: US Army. Physician and Sportsmedicine 17: 89–96, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilmore JH. Morphologic and physiologic differences between man and woman relevant to exercise. International Journal of Sports Medicine 5 (Suppl.): 193–194, 1984

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilmore JH, Brown CH. Physiologic profiles of women distance runners. Medicine and Science in Sports 6: 178–181, 1974

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wolman RL, Harries MG, Fyfe I. Slipped upper femoral epiphysis in an amenorrheic athlete. British Medical Journal 299: 720–721, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wood PD, Haskell WL, Stern S, Lewis MP, Perry C. Plasma lipoprotein distributions in male and female runners. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 301: 748–763, 1977

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wynne TP, Frey MAB, Laubach LL, Glueck CJ. Effect of a controlled exercise program on serum lipoprotein levels in women on oral contraceptives. Metabolism 29: 1267–1271, 1980

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yates A, Leehey K, Shisslak CM. Running — an analogue of anorexia? New England Journal of Medicine 308: 251–255, 1983

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine, University of Zurich, Sumatrastrasse 30, CH-8006, Zurich, Switzerland

    Bernard Marti

Authors
  1. Bernard Marti
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Marti, B. Health Effects of Recreational Running in Women. Sports Med 11, 20–51 (1991). https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-199111010-00003

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-199111010-00003

Keywords

Search

Navigation