Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Cervical Dystonia

Pathophysiology and Treatment Options

  • Therapy in Practice
  • Published:
Drugs Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Dystonia is a syndrome of sustained involuntary muscle contractions, frequently causing twisting and repetitive movements or abnormal posturing. Cervical dystonia (CD) is a form of dystonia that involves neck muscles. However, CD is not the only cause of neck rotation. Torticollis may be caused by orthopaedic, musculofibrotic, infectious and other neurological conditions that affect the anatomy of the neck, and structural causes.

It is estimated that there are between 60 000 and 90 000 patients with CD in the US. The majority of the patients present with a combination of neck rotation (rotatory torticollis or rotatocollis), flexion (anterocollis), extension (retrocollis), head tilt (laterocollis) or a lateral or sagittal shift. Neck posturing may be either tonic, clonic or tremulous, and may result in permanent and fixed contractures.

Sensory tricks (‘geste antagonistique’) often temporarily ameliorate dystonic movements and postures. Commonly used sensory tricks by patients with CD include touching the chin, back of the head or top of the head.

Patients with CD are classified according to aetiology into two groups: primary CD (idiopathic — may be genetic or sporadic) or secondary CD (symptomatic). Patients with primary CD have no evidence by history, physical examination or laboratory studies (except primary dystonia gene) of any secondary cause for the dystonic symptoms. CD is a part of either generalised or focal dystonic syndrome which may have a genetic basis, with an identifiable genetic association. Secondary or symptomatic CD may be caused by central or peripheral trauma, exposure to dopamine receptor antagonists (tardive), neurodegenerative disease, and other conditions associated with abnormal functioning of the basal ganglia. In the majority of patients with CD, the aetiology is not identifiable and the disorder is often classified as primary.

Unless the aetiological investigation reveals a specific therapeutic intervention, therapy for CD is symptomatic. It includes supportive therapy and counselling, physical therapy, pharmacotherapy, chemodenervation [botulinum toxin (BTX), phenol, alcohol], and central and peripheral surgical therapy. The most widely used and accepted therapy for CD is local intramuscular injections of BTX-type A. Currently, both BTX type A and type B are commercially available, and type F has undergone testing. Pharmacotherapy, including anticholinergics, dopaminergic depleting and blocking agents, and other muscle relaxants can be used alone or in combination with other therapeutic interventions. Surgery is usually reserved for patients with CD in whom other forms of treatment have failed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Table I
Table II
Table III
Table IV
Table V

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Use of a tradename is for identification purposes only and does not imply endorsement.

  2. Use of a tradename is for identification purposes only and does not imply endorsement.

  3. Use of a tradename is for identification purposes only and does not imply endorsement.

  4. Use of a tradename is for identification purposes only and does not imply endorsement.

References

  1. Fahn S, Marsden CD, Calne DB. Classification and investigation of dystonia. In: Marsden CD, Fahn S, editors. Movement disorders 2. London: Butterworths, 1987: 332–58

    Google Scholar 

  2. Fahn S. The varied clinical expressions of dystonia. Neurol Clin 1984; 2(3): 541–54

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Claypool DW, Duane DD, Ilstrup DM, et al. Epidemiology and outcome of cervical dystonia (spasmodic torticollis) in Rochester, Minnesota. Mov Disord 1995; 10: 608–14

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Nutt JG, Muenter MD, Aronson A, et al. Epidemiology of focal and generalized dystonia in Rochester, Minnesota. Mov Disord 1988; 3: 188–94

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Duffey PO, Butler AG, Hawthorne MR, et al. The epidemiology of the primary dystonias in the north of England. Adv Neurol 1998; 78: 121–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Chan J, Brin M, Fahn S. Idiopathic cervical dystonia: clinical characteristics. Mov Disord 1991; 6: 119–26

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Jankovic J, Leder S, Warner D, et al. Cervical dystonia: clinical findings and associated movement disorders. Neurology 1991; 41: 1088–91

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Rondot P, Marchand MP, Dellatolas G. Spasmodic torticollis — review of 220 patients. Can J Neurol Sci 1991; 18: 143–51

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Duane DD. Spasmodic torticollis. Adv Neurol 1988;49: 135–50

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Epidemiologic Study of Dystonia in Europe (ESDE) Collaborative Group. Sex-related influences on the frequency and age of onset of primary dystonia. Neurology 1999; 53: 1871–3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Marsden CD. Investigation of dystonia. Adv Neurol 1988; 50: 35–44

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Consky ES, Lang AE. Clinical assessments of patients with cervical Dystonia. In: Jankovic J, Hallett M, editors. Therapy with botulinum toxin. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1994: 211–37

    Google Scholar 

  13. Jorgenson C, Porphyris H. Idiopathic spasmodic torticollis. J Neurosurg Nurs 1985; 17: 169–74

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Friedman A, Fahn S. Spontaneous remissions in spasmodic torticollis. Neurology 1986; 36: 398–400

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Jahanshahi M, Marion MH, Marsden CD. Natural history of adult-onset idiopathic torticollis. Arch Neurol 1990; 47: 548–52

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Jahanshahi M. Factors that ameliorate or aggravate spasmodic torticollis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2000; 68: 227–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Wissel J, Müller J, Ebersbach G, et al. Trick maneuvers in cervical dystonia: investigation of movement- and touch-related changes in polymyographic activity. Mov Disord 1999; 14: 994–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Greene PE, Bressman S. Exteroceptive and interoceptive stimuli in dystonia. Mov Disord 1998; 13: 549–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Kutvonen O, Dastidar P, Nurmikko T. Pain in spasmodic torticollis. Pain 1997; 69(3): 279–86

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Lowenstein DH, Aminoff MJ. The clinical course of spasmodic torticollis. Neurology 1988; 38: 530–2

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Bressman SB, Sabatti C, Raymond D, et al. The dystonial phe-notype and guidelines for diagnostic testing [see comments]. Neurology 2000; 54: 1746–52

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Brin MF. Dystonia: genetics and treatment with botulinum toxin. In: Smith B, Adelman G, editors. Neuroscience year: encyclopedia of neuroscience. Suppl. 2. Boston: Birkhauser, 1997: 56–8

    Google Scholar 

  23. Ozelius LJ, Hewett JW, Page CE, et al. The early-onset torsion dystonia gene (DYT1) encodes an ATP binding protein. Natl Gen 1997; 17: 40–8

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Ozelius L, Kramer PL, Moskowitz CB, et al. Human gene for torsion dystonia located on chromosome 9q32-q 34. Neuron 1989; 2: 1427–34

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Gimenez-Roldan S, Lopez-Fraile IP, Esteban A. Dystonia in Spain: study of a Gypsy family and general survey. Adv Neurol 1976; 14: 125–36

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Haberhausen G, Schmitt I, Köhler A, et al. Assignment of the dystonia-parkinsonism syndrome locus, dystonia3, to a small region within a 1.8-Mb YAC contig of Xql3. 1. Am J Hum Genet 1995; 57: 644–50

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Graeber MB, Kupke KG, Muller U. Delineation of the dystonia-parkinsonism syndrome locus in Xq l 3. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1992; 89: 8245–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Takahashi H, Snow B, Waters C, et al. Evidence for nigrostriatal lesions in Lubag (X-linked dystonia-parkinsonism in the Philippines). Neurology 1992; 42 Suppl. 3: 441

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Lee LV, Kupke KG, Caballar Gonzaga F, et al. The phenotype of the X-linked dystonia-parkinsonism syndrome. An assessment of 42 cases in the Philippines. Medicine (Balt) 1991; 70: 179–87

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Wilhelmsen KC, Weeks DE, Nygaard TG, et al. Genetic mapping of the ‘Lubag’ (X-linked dystonia-parkinsonism) in a Filipino kindred to the pericentromeric region of the X chromosome. Ann Neurol 1991; 29: 124–31

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Kupke KG, Lee LV, Muller U. Assignment of the X-linked torsion dystonia gene to Xq21 by linkage analysis. Neurology 1990; 40: 1438–42

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Kupke KG, Lee LV, Viterbo GH, et al. X-linked recessive torsion dystonia in the Philippines. Am J Med Genet 1990; 36: 237–42

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Kandil MR, Tohamy SA, Fattah MA, et al. Prevalence of chorea, dystonia and athetosis in Assiut, Egypt: a clinical and epidemiological study. Neuroepidemiology 1994; 13: 202–10

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Parker N. Hereditary whispering dysphonia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1985; 48: 218–24

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Ichinose H, Ohye T, Takahashi E, et al. Hereditary progressive dystonia with marked diurnal fluctuation caused by mutations in the GTP cyclohydrolase I gene. Nat Genet 1994; 8: 236–42

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Ichinose H, Ohye T, Matsuda Y, et al. Characterization of mouse and human GTP cyclohydrolase I genes. Mutations in patients with GTP cyclohydrolase I deficiency. J Biol Chem 1995; 270: 10062–71

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Nygaard TG, Wilhelmsen KC, Risch NJ, et al. Linkage mapping of DOPA-responsive dystonia (Drd) to chromosome 14Q. Nat Genet 1993; 5: 386–91

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Knappskog PM, Flatmark T, Mallet J, et al. Recessively inherited L-DOPA-responsive dystonia caused by a point mutation (Q381K) in the tyrosine hydroxylase gene. Hum Mol Genet 1995; 4: 1209–12

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Almasy L, Bressman SB, Raymond D, et al. Idiopathic torsion dystonia linked to chromosome 8 in two Mennonite families. Ann Neurol 1997; 42: 670–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Leube B, Rudnicki D, Ratzlaff T, et al. Idiopathic torsion dystonia: assignment of a gene to chromosome 18p in a german family with adult onset, autosomal dominant inheritance and purely focal distribution. Hum Mol Genet 1996; 5: 1673–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Leube B, Hendgen T, Kessler KR, et al. Sporadic focal dystonia in northwest Germany: molecular basis on chromosome 18p. Ann Neurol 1997; 42(1): 111–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Leube B, Hendgen T, Kessler KR, et al. Evidence for dystonia7 being a common cause of cervical dystonia (torticollis) in Central Europe. Am J Med Genet 1997; 74(5): 529–2

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Raskind WH, Bolin T, Wolff J, et al. Further localization of a gene for paroxysmal dystonic choreoathetosis to a 5-cM region on chromosome 2q 34. Hum Genet 1998; 102: 93–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Fink JK, Rainer S, Wilkowski J, et al. Paroxysmal dystonic choreoathetosis: tight linkage to chromosome 2q. Am J Hum Genet 1996; 59: 140–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Fouad GT, Servidei S, Durcan S, et al. A gene for familial paroxysmal dyskinesia (FPD1) maps to chromosome 2q. Am J Hum Genet 1996; 59: 135–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Auburger G, Ratzlaff T, Lunkes A, et al. A gene for autosomal dominant paroxysmal choreoathetosis/spasticity (CSE) maps to the vicinity of a potassium channel gene cluster on chromosome 1p, probably within 2 cM between D1S443 and D1S 197. Genomics 1996; 31: 90–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Walker ES. Familial paroxysmal dystonic choreoathetosis: a neurologic disorder simulating psychiatric illness. Johns Hopkins Med J 1981; 148: 108–13

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Kertesz A. Paroxysmal kinesigenic choreoathetosis. An entity within the paroxysmal choreoathetosis syndrome. Description of 10 cases, including 1 autopsied. Neurology 1967; 17: 680–90

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Lance JW. Sporadic and familial varieties of tonic seizures. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1963; 26: 51–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Smith LA, Heersema PH. Periodic dystonia. Mayo Clin Proc 1941; 16: 842–6

    Google Scholar 

  51. Klein C, Brin MF, Kramer P, et al. Association of a missense change in the D2 dopamine receptor with myoclonus dystonia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1999; 96: 5173–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Klein C, Breakefield X, Ozelius L. Genetics of primary dystonia. Semin Neurol 1999; 19: 271–80

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Gasser T, Bereznai B, Muller B, et al. Linkage studies in alcohol-responsive myoclonic dystonia. Mov Disord 1996; 11: 363–70

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Nygaard TG, Raymond D, Chen C, et al. Localization of a gene for myoclonus-dystonia to chromosome 7q21-q 31. Ann Neurol 1999; 46: 794–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Brashear A, deLeon D, Bressman SB, et al. Rapid-onset dystonia-parkinsonism in a second family. Neurology 1997; 48(4): 1066–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Ishikawa A, Miyatake T. A family with hereditary juvenile dystonia-parkinsonism. Mov Disord 1995; 10: 482–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Dobyns WB, Ozelius LJ, Kramer PL, et al. Rapid-onset dystonia-parkinsonism. Neurology 1993; 43: 2596–602

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Kramer PL, Mineta M, Klein C, et al. Rapid-onset dystonia-parkinsonism: linkage to chromosome 19ql3 [in process citation]. Ann Neurol 1999; 46: 176–82

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Jun AS, Brown MD, Wallace DC. A mitochondrial DNA mutation at np 14459 of the ND6 gene associated with maternally inherited Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy and dystonia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1994; 91: 6206–10

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Novotny Jr EJ, Singh G, Wallace DC, et al. Leber’s disease and dystonia: a mitochondrial disease. Neurology 1986; 36: 1053–60

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Risch N, de Leon D, Ozelius L, et al. Genetic analysis of idiopathic torsion dystonia in Ashkenazi Jews and their recent descent from a small founder population [see comments]. Natl Genet 1995; 9: 152–9

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Kramer PL, de Leon D, Ozelius L, et al. Dystonia gene in Ashkenazi Jewish population is located on chromosome 9q32-34 [see comments]. Ann Neurol 1990; 27: 114–20

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Shashidharan P, Kramer BC, Walker RH, et al. Immunohisto-chemical localization and distribution of torsinA in normal human and rat brain. Brain Res 2000; 853: 197–206

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Shashidharan P, Good PF, Hsu A, et al. Torsin A accumulation in Lewy bodies in sporadic Parkinson’s disease. Brain Res 2000; 877(2): 379–81

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Augood SJ, Martin DM, Ozelius LJ, et al. Distribution of the mRNAs encoding torsinA and torsinB in the normal adult human brain. Ann Neurol 1999; 46: 761–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Kustedjo K, Bracey MH, Cravatt BF. Torsin A and its torsion dystonia-associated mutant form are lumenal glycoproteins that exhibit distinct subcellular localizations. J Biol Chem 2000; 275(36): 27933–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Hewett J, Gonzalez-Agosti C, Slater D, et al. Mutant torsinA, responsible for early-onset torsion dystonia, forms membrane inclusions in cultured neural cells. Hum Mol Genet 2000; 9: 1403–13

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Oppenheim H. Uber eine eigenartige Krampfkrankheit des kindlichen und jungendichen Alters (dysbasia lordotica progressiva, dystonia musculorum deformans). Neuro Centrabl 1911; 30: 1090–107

    Google Scholar 

  69. Herz EM, Dystonia I. Historical review; analysis of dystonic symptoms and physiologic mechanisms involved. Arch Neurol Psychiatry 1944; 51: 305–55

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Herz E. Dystonia III. Pathology and conclusions. Arch Neurol Psychiatry 1944; 52: 20–6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  71. Herz E. Dystonia II. Clinical classification. Arch Neurol Psychiatry 1944; 51: 319–55

    Google Scholar 

  72. Cohen LG, Hallett M. Hand cramps: clinical features and electromyographic patterns in a focal dystonia. Neurology 1988; 38: 1005–12

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Buchman AS, Cornelia CL, Leurgans S, et al. The effect of changes in head posture on the patterns of muscle activity in cervical dystonia (CD). Mov Disord 1998; 13: 490–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Hallett M. Physiology of dystonia. Adv Neurol 1998; 78: 11–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Kaji R, Rothwell JC, Katayama M, et al. Tonic vibration reflex and muscle afferent block in writer’s cramp. Ann Neurol 1995; 38: 155–62

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Naumann M, Pirker W, Reiners K, et al. Imaging the pre- and postsynaptic side of striatal dopaminergic synapses in idiopathic cervical dystonia: a SPECT study using [123I] epidepride and [123I] beta-CIT. Mov Disord 1998; 13: 319–23

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Perlmutter JS, Stambuk MK, Markham J, et al. Decreased [18F]spiperone binding in putamen in dystonia. Adv Neurol 1998; 78: 161–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Sealfon SC, Olanow CW. Dopamine receptors: from structure to behavior. Trends Neurosci 2000; 23: S34–S40

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Kanovsky P, Streitova H, Dufek J, et al. Lateralization of the P22/N30 component of somatosensory evoked potentials of the median nerve in patients with cervical dystonia. Mov Disord 1997; 12(4): 553–60

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. McEwen JE, Reilly PR. State legislative efforts to regulate use and potential misuse of genetic information [published erratum appears in Am J Hum Genet 1992 Dec; 51 (6): 1457]. Am J Hum Genet 1992; 51: 637–47

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Mazzini L, Zaccala M, Balzarini C. Abnormalities of somatosensory evoked potentials in spasmodic torticollis. Mov Disord 1994; 9: 426–30

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Naumann M, MagyarLehmann S, Reiners K, et al. Sensory tricks in cervical dystonia: perceptual dysbalance of parietal cortex modulates frontal motor programming. Ann Neurol 2000; 47(3): 322–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Leis AA, Dimitrijevic MR, Delapasse JS, et al. Modification of cervical dystonia by selective sensory stimulation. J Neurol Sci 1992; 110: 79–89

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Odergren T, Rimpilainen I, Borg J. Sternocleidomastoid muscle responses to transcranial magnetic stimulation in patients with cervical dystonia. Electromyogr Motor Control 1997; 105(1): 44–52

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Amadio S, Panizza M, Pisano F, et al. Transcranial magnetic stimulation and silent period in spasmodic torticollis. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2000; 79: 361–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Samii A, Pal PK, Schulzer M, et al. Post-traumatic cervical dystonia: a distinct entity? Can J Neurol Sci 2000; 27(1): 55–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Truong DD, Dubinsky R, Hermanowicz N, et al. Posttraumatic torticollis. Arch Neurol 1991; 48: 221–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Tarsy D. Comparison of acute- and delayed-onset posttraumatic cervical dystonia. Mov Disord 1998: 13; 481–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Schott GD. The relationship of peripheral trauma and pain to dystonia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1985; 48: 698–701

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Duane DD, Clark M, Gottlob L. Elevated autoimmune antibody titers in cervical dystonia versus control. Neurology 1995; 45: A456

    Article  Google Scholar 

  91. Kumar R, Maraganore DM, Ahlskog JE, et al. Treatment of putative immune-mediated and idiopathic cervical dystonia with intravenous methylprednisolone. Neurology 1997; 48: 732–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Becker G, Berg D, Rausch WD, et al. Increased tissue copper and manganese content in the lentiform nucleus in primary adult-onset dystonia. Ann Neurol 1999; 46(2): 260–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Berg D, Weishaupt A, Francis MJ, et al. Changes of copper-transporting proteins and ceruloplasmin in the lentiform nuclei in primary adult-onset dystonia. Ann Neurol 2000; 47(6): 827–30

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Mezaki T, Matsumoto S, Hamada C, et al. Decreased serum ceruloplasmin and copper levels in cervical dystonia. Ann Neurol 2001; 49(1): 138–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Weiner WJ, Lang AE. Idiopathic torsion dystonia. In: Weiner WJ, Lang AE, editors. Movement disorders: a comprehensive survey. New York: Futura, 1989: 347–418

    Google Scholar 

  96. Jankovic J, Fahn S. Dystonic syndromes. In: Jankovic J, Tolosa E, editors. Parkinson’s disease and movement disorders. Baltimore-Munich: Urban & Schwarzenberg, 1988: 283–314

    Google Scholar 

  97. Dauer WT, Burke RE, Greene P, et al. Current concepts on the clinical features, etiology and management of idiopathic cervical dystonia. Brain 1998; 121: 547–60

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Scott BL. Evaluation and treatment of dystonia. South Med J 2000; 93: 746–51

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Pal PK, Samii A, Schulzer M, et al. Head tremor in cervical dystonia. Can J Neurol Sci 2000; 27: 137–42

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. de Leon D, Moskowitz CB, Stewart C. Proposed guidelines for videotaping individuals with movement disorders. J Neurosci Nurs 1991; 23: 191–3

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Klawans HL. Taking a Risk. Trials of an expert witness: tales of clinical neurology and the law. Boston: Little Brown, 1991: 93–4

    Google Scholar 

  102. Kraft IA. A psychiatric study of two patients with dystonia musculorum deformans. South Med J 1966; 59: 284–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Tolosa ES. Clinical features of Meige’s disease (idiopathic or-ofacial dystonia). iA report of 17 cases. Arch Neurol 1981; 38: 147–51

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Jahanshahi M, Marsden CD. Depression in torticollis: a controlled study. Psychol Med 1988; 18: 925–33

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Jahanshahi M, Marsden CD. A longitudinal follow-up study of depression, disability, and body concept in torticollis. Behav Neurol 1990; 3: 233–46

    Google Scholar 

  106. Murry T, Cannito MP, Woodson GE. Spasmodic Dysphonia -emotional status and Botulinum toxin treatment. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1994; 120: 310–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Lauterbach EC, Price ST, Spears TE, et al. Serotonin responsive and nonresponsive diurnal depressive mood disorders and pathological affect in Thalamic Infarct associated with Myoclonus and Blepharospasm. Biol Psychiatry 1994; 35: 488–90

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Jahanshahi M. Psychosocial factors and depression in torticollis. J Psychosom Res 1991; 35: 493–507

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Wenzel T, Schnider P, Wimmer A, et al. Psychiatric comorbidity in patients with spasmodic torticollis. J Psychosom Res 1998; 44: 687–90

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Greene P, Shale H, Fahn S. Analysis of open-label trials in torsion dystonia using high dosages of anticholinergics and other drugs. Mov Disord 1988; 3: 46–60

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Brans JW, Lindeboom R, Snoek JW, et al. Botulinum toxin versus trihexyphenidyl in cervical dystonia: a prospective, randomized, double-blind controlled trial. Neurology 1996; 46: 1066–72

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Reches A, Burke RE, Kuhn CM, et al. Tetrabenazine, an amine-depleting drug, also blocks dopamine receptors in rat brain. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1983; 225: 515–21

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Jankovic J. Treatment of hyperkinetic movement disorders with tetrabenazine: a double-blind crossover study. Ann Neurol 1982; 11: 41–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Jankovic J, Orman J. Tetrabenazine therapy of dystonia, chorea, tics, and other dyskinesias. Neurology 1988; 38: 391–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Jankovic J, Beach J. Long-term effects of tetrabenazine in hyperkinetic movement disorders. Neurology 1997; 48: 358–62

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Burke RE, Reches A, Traub MM, et al. Tetrabenazine induces acute dystonic reactions. Ann Neurol 1985; 17: 200–2

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Burke RE, Fahn S, Mayeux R, et al. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome caused by dopamine-depleting drugs in a patient with Huntington disease. Neurology 1981; 31: 1022–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Ossemann M, Sindic CJ, Laterre C. Tetrabenazine as a cause of neuroleptic malignant syndrome [letter]. Mov Disord 1996; 11: 95

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Mateo D, Munoz-Blanco JL, Gimenez-Roldan S. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome related to tetrabenazine introduction and haloperidol discontinuation in Huntington’s disease. Clin Neuropharm 1992; 15: 63–8

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Burbaud P, Guehl D, Lagueny A, et al. A pilot trial of clozapine in the treatment of cervical dystonia [letter]. J Neurol 1998; 245: 329–31

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Thiel A, Dressier D, Kistel C, et al. Clozapine treatment of spasmodic torticollis. Neurology 1994; 44: 957–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Karpati S, Desaknai S, Desaknai M, et al. Human herpesvirus type 8-positive facial angiosarcoma developing at the site of botulinum toxin injection for blepharospasm. Br J Dermatol 2000; 143: 660–1

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Scott AB, Rosenbaum A, Collins CC. Pharmacologic weakening of extraocular muscles. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1973; 12: 924–7

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Scott AB. Botulinum toxin injection into extraocular muscles as an alternative to strabismus surgery. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus 1980; 17: 21–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Brin MF, Fahn S, Moskowitz C, et al. Localized injections of botulinum toxin for the treatment of focal dystonia and hemi-facial spasm. Adv Neurol 1988; 50: 599–608

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Jankovic J, Schwartz K. Botulinum toxin injections for cervical dystonia. Neurology 1990; 40: 277–80

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Cornelia CL, Buchman AS, Tanner CM, et al. Botulinum toxin injection for spasmodic torticollis: increased magnitude of benefit with electromyographic assistance. Neurology 1992; 42: 878–82

    Article  Google Scholar 

  128. Greene P, Kang U, Fahn S, et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of botulinum toxin injections for the treatment of spasmodic torticollis. Neurology 1990; 40: 1213–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Jankovic J, Brin M. Therapeutic uses of botulinum toxin. N Engl J Med 1991; 324: 1186–94

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Brin MF. Interventional neurology: treatment of neurological conditions with local injection of botulinum toxin. Arch Neurobiol 1991; 54: 173–89

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Jahanshahi M, Marsden CD. Psychological functioning before and after treatment of torticollis with botulinum toxin. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1992; 55: 229–31

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. Poewe W, Deuschl G, Nebe A, et al. What is the optimal dose of botulinum toxin A in the treatment of cervical dystonia? Results of a double blind, placebo controlled, dose ranging study using Dysport®. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1998; 64(1): 13–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Brans JW, Lindeboom R, Aramideh M, et al. Long-term effect of botulinum toxin on impairment and functional health in cervical dystonia. Neurology 1998; 50: 1461–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Kessler KR, Skutta M, Benecke R. Long-term treatment of cervical dystonia with botulinum toxin A: efficacy, safety, and antibody frequency. German Dystonia Study Group J Neurol 1999; 246: 265–74

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Odergren T, Hjaltason H, Kaakkola S, et al. A double blind, randomised, parallel group study to investigate the dose equivalence of Dysport(R) and Botox(R) in the treatment of cervical dystonia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1998; 64(1):6–12

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Dressler D, Rothwell JC. Electromyographic quantification of the paralysing effect of botulinum toxin in the sternocleido-mastoid muscle. Eur Neurol 2000; 43: 13–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Brashear A, Bergan K, Wojcieszek J, et al. Patients’ perception of stopping or continuing treatment of cervical dystonia with botulinum toxin type A. Mov Disord 2000; 15(1): 150–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Astarloa R, Morales B, Sanchez V, et al. [Focal dystonias and facial hemispasm: treatment with botulinum A toxin]. Arch Neurobiol 1991; 54 Suppl. 3: 44–51

    Google Scholar 

  139. Finsterer J, Fuchs I, Mamoli B. Automatic EMG-guided botulinum toxin treatment of spasticity. Clin Neuropharmacol 1997; 20(3): 195–203

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. Finsterer J, Fuchs I, Mamoli B. Quantitative electromyography-guided botulinum toxin treatment of cervical dystonia. Clin Neuropharmacol 1997; 20: 42–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. Brans JW, de Boer IP, Aramideh M, et al. Botulinum toxin in cervical dystonia: low dosage with electromyographic guidance. J Neurol 1995; 242: 529–34

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  142. Rollnik JD, Matzke M, Wohlfarth K, et al. Low-dose treatment of cervical dystonia, blepharospasm and facial hemispasm with albumin-diluted botulinum toxin type A under EMG guidance — an open label study. Eur Neurol 2000; 43(1): 9–12

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. Brin MF, Blitzer A. Botulinum toxin — dangerous terminology errors. J R Soc Med 1993; 86: 494

    Google Scholar 

  144. Sampaio C, Ferreira JJ, Simoes F, et al. DYSBOT: a single-blind, randomized parallel study to determine whether any differences can be detected in the efficacy and tolerability of two formulations of botulinum toxin type A — Dysport and Botox — assuming a ratio of 4: 1. Mov Disord 1997; 12(6): 1013–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  145. Brashear A, Lew M F, Dykstra DD, et al. Safety & efficacy of Neurobloc (botulinum toxin type B) in type A-responsive cervical dystonia. Neurology 1999; 53(7): 1439–46

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Brin MF, Lew MF, Adler CH, et al. Safety & efficacy of Neurobloc (botulinum toxin type B) in type-A resistant cervical dystonia. Neurology 1999; 53(7): 1431–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. Jankovic J, Brin MF. Botulinum toxin: historical perspective and potential new indications. Muscle Nerve 1997; 20: S129–45

    Article  Google Scholar 

  148. Brin MF. Treatment of dystonia. In: Jankovic J, Tolosa E, editors. Parkinson’s disease and movement disorders. New York: Williams & Wilkins, 1998: 553–78

    Google Scholar 

  149. Brin MF, Blitzer A, Stewart C, et al. Disorders with excessive muscle contraction: candidates for treatment with intramuscular botulinum toxin (‘botox’). In: DasGupta BR, editor. Botulinum and tetanus neurotoxins: neurotransmission and biomedical aspects. New York: Plenum, 1993: 559–76

    Google Scholar 

  150. Blitzer A, Binder WJ, Brin MF. Management of facial wrinkles with botulinum toxin injections. In: Krespi YP, editor. Office-based surgery of the head and neck. New York: Lippincott-Raven, 1998: 251–4

    Google Scholar 

  151. Blitzer A, Binder WJ, Boyd JB, et al. Management of facial lines and wrinkles. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 1999

    Google Scholar 

  152. American Academy of Neurology. Assessment: the clinical usefulness of botulinum toxin-A in treating neurologic disorders. Report of the therapeutics and technology assessment subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 1990; 40: 1332–6

    Google Scholar 

  153. National Institutes of Health Consensus Development Conference. Clinical use of botulinum toxin. National Institutes of Health Consensus Development Statement, Nov 12–14, 1990. Arch Neurol 1991; 48: 1294–8

    Google Scholar 

  154. AAO-HNS. American Academy of Otolaryngology — Head and neck surgery policy statement: Botox for spasmodic dysphonia. AAO-HNS Bulletin 1990; 9: 8

    Google Scholar 

  155. Cornelia CL, Tanner CM, DeFoor-Hill L, et al. Dysphagia after botulinum toxin injections for spasmodic torticollis: clinical and radiologic findings. Neurology 1992; 42: 1307–10

    Article  Google Scholar 

  156. Buchholz DW, Neumann S. The swallowing side effects of botulinum toxin type a injection in spasmodic dysphonia. Dysphagia 1997; 12: 59–60

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  157. Lew MF, Adornato BT, Duane DD, et al. Botulinum toxin type B (BotB): a double-blind, placebo-controlled, safety and efficacy study in cervical dystonia. Neurology 1997; 49: 701–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  158. Allergan Pharmaceuticals. BOTOX® approved uses: cervical dystonia [online]. Available from URL: http//www.botox.com/index.jsp?hp&cervical [Accessed 2001 Sep 20]

  159. Allergan Inc. BOTOX® package information. Irvine (CA), 2000

  160. Paton JC, Lawrence AJ, Manson JI. Quantitation of Clostridium botulinum organisms and toxin in the feces of an infant with botulism. J Clin Microbiol 1982; 15: 1–4

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  161. Jankovic J, Schwartz K. Response and immunoresistance to botulinum toxin injections. Neurology 1995; 45: 1743–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  162. Sankhla C, Jankovic J, Duane D. Variability of the immunologic and clinical response in dystonic patients immunoresist-ant to botulinum toxin injections. Movement Disord 1998; 13(1): 150–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  163. Greene P, Fahn S. Development of antibodies to botulinum toxin type A in patients with torticollis treated with injections of botulinum toxin type A. In: DasGupta BR, editor. Botulinum and tetanus neurotoxins: neurotransmission and biomedical aspects. New York: Plenum Press, 1993: 651–4

    Google Scholar 

  164. Greene P, Fahn S, Diamond B. Development of resistance to botulinum toxin type A in patients with torticollis. Mov Disord 1994; 9: 213–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  165. Zuber M, Sebald M, Bathien N, et al. Botulinum antibodies in Dystonic patients treated with Type-A Botulinum Toxin —frequency and significance. Neurology 1993; 43: 1715–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  166. Hatheway CH, Snyder JD, Seals JE, et al. Antitoxin levels in botulism patients treated with trivalent equine botulism antitoxin to toxin types A, B, and E. J Infect Dis 1984; 150: 407–12

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  167. Dressier D, Dimberger G, Bhatia KP, et al. Botulinum toxin antibody testing: comparison between the mouse protection assay and the mouse lethality assay. Mov Disord 2000; 15: 973–6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  168. Dezfulian M, Hatheway C, Yolken R, et al. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of Clostridium botulinum type A and type B toxins in stool samples of infants with botulism. J Clin Microbiol 1984; 20: 379–83

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  169. Dezfulian M, Bitar R, Bartlett J. Kinetics study of immunological response to Clostridium botulinum toxin. J Clin Microbiol 1987; 25: 1336–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  170. Tsui JK, Wong NLM, Wong E, et al. Production of circulating antibodies to botulinum-A toxin in patients receiving repeated injections for dystonia. Ann Neurol 1988; 24: 181

    Google Scholar 

  171. Doellgast GJ, Triscott MX, Beard GA, et al. Sensitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of Clostridium botulinum neurotoxins A, B, and E using signal amplification via enzyme-linked coagulation assay. J Clin Microbiol 1993; 31: 2402–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  172. Doellgast GJ, Beard GA, Bottoms JD, et al. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and enzyme-linked coagulation assay for detection of Clostridium botulinum neurotoxin-A, neuro-toxin-B, and neurotoxin-E and solution-phase complexes with dual-label antibodies. J Clin Microbiol 1994; 32: 105–11

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  173. Siatkowski RM, Tyutyunikov A, Biglan AW, et al. Serum antibody production to botulinum-A toxin. Ophthalmology 1993; 100: 1861–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  174. Hanna PA, Jankovic J. Mouse bioassay versus Western blot assay for botulinum toxin antibodies: correlation with clinical response. Neurology 1998; 50: 1624–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  175. Greene PE, Fahn S. Use of botulinum toxin type-F injections to treat torticollis in patients with immunity to botulinum toxin type-A. Mov Disord 1993; 8: 479–83

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  176. Greene PE, Fahn S. Response to botulinum toxin f in seronegative botulinum toxin a — resistant patients. Mov Disord 1996; 11: 181–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  177. Ludlow CL, Hallett M, Rhew K, et al. Therapeutic use of type F botulinum toxin [letter]. N Engl J Med 1992; 326: 349–50

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  178. Rhew K, Ludlow CL, Karp BI, et al. Clinical experience with botulinum toxin F. In: Jankovic J, Hallett M, editors. Therapy with botulinum toxin. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1994: 323–8

    Google Scholar 

  179. Sheean GL, Lees AJ. Botulinum toxin F in the treatment of torticollis clinically resistant to botulinum toxin A. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1995; 59: 601–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  180. Houser MK, Sheean GL, Lees AJ. Further studies using higher doses of botulinum toxin type F for torticollis resistant to botulinum toxin type A. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1998; 64: 577–80

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  181. Truong DD, Cullis PA, Obrien CF, et al. BotB (botulinum toxin type B): evaluation of safety and tolerability in botulinum toxin type A-resistant cervical dystonia patients (preliminary study). Mov Disord 1997; 12(5): 772–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  182. Tsui JKC, Hayward M, Mak EKM, et al. Botulinum toxin type B in the treatment of cervical dystonia: a pilot study. Neurology 1995; 45: 2109–10

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  183. Brin MF, Lew MF, Adler CH, et al. Safety and efficacy of Neurobloc (botulinum toxin type-B) in type-A resistant cervical dystonia (CD) patients. Neurology 1999; 52 Suppl. 2: A293

    Google Scholar 

  184. Cullis PA, O’Brien CF, Truong DD, et al. Botulinum toxin type B: an open-label, dose-escalation, safety and preliminary efficacy study in cervical dystonia patients. Adv Neurol 1998; 78: 227–30

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  185. Hatheway CL, Dang C. Immunogenicity of the neurotoxins of Clostridium botulinum. In: Jankovic J, Hallett M, editors. Therapy with botulinum toxin. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1994; 93–107

    Google Scholar 

  186. Dodel RC, Kirchner A, Koehne-Volland R, et al. Costs of treating dystonias and hemifacial spasm with botulinum toxin A. Pharmacoeconomics 1997; 12: 695–706

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  187. Goschel H, Wohlfarth K, Frevert J, et al. Botulinum A toxin therapy: neutralizing and nonneutralizing antibodies — therapeutic consequences. Exp Neurol 1997; 147(1): 96–102

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  188. Aoki R, Merlino G, Spanoyannis AF, et al. BOTOX (botulinum toxin type A) purified neurotoxin complex prepared from the new bulk toxin retains the same preclinical efficacy as the original but with reduced immunogenicity. Neurology 1999; 52 Suppl. 2: A521–A2

    Google Scholar 

  189. Racette BA, McGee-Minnich L, Perlmutter JS. Efficacy and safety of a new bulk toxin of botulinum toxin in cervical dystonia: a blinded evaluation. Clin Neuropharm 1999; 22: 337–9

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  190. Naumann M, Toyka KV, Mansouri TB, et al. Depletion of neutralising antibodies resensitises a secondary non-responder to botulinum A neurotoxin. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1998; 65: 924–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  191. Duane DD, Monroe J, Morris RE. Mycophenolate in the prevention of recurrent neutralizing botulinum toxin A antibodies in cervical dystonia. Mov Disord 2000; 15(2): 365–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  192. Ansved T, Odergren T, Borg K. Muscle fiber atrophy in leg muscles after botulinum toxin type A treatment of cervical dystonia. Neurology 1997; 48: 1440–2

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  193. Sanders DB, Massey EW, Buckley EG. Botulinum toxin for blepharospasm: single-fiber EMG studies. Neurology 1986; 36: 545–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  194. Lange DJ, Warner C, Brin MF, et al. Botulinum toxin therapy: distant effects on neuromuscular transmission [abstract]. Muscle Nerve 1985; 8: 624

    Google Scholar 

  195. Girlanda P, Vita G, Nicolosi C. Botulinum toxin therapy: distant effects on neuromuscular transmission and autonomic nervous system. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1992; 55: 844–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  196. Scott AB. Clostridial toxins as therapeutic agents. In: Simpson LL, editor. Botulinum neurotoxin and tetanus toxin. New York: Academic Press, 1989: 399–412

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  197. Moser E, Ligon KM, Singer C, et al. Botulinum toxin A (Botox) therapy during pregnancy [abstract]. Neurology 1997; 48: A399

    Article  Google Scholar 

  198. Emerson J. Botulinum toxin for spasmodic torticollis in a patient with myasthenia gravis. Mov Disord 1994; 9: 367

    Article  Google Scholar 

  199. Mezaki T, Kaji R, Kohara N, et al. Development of general weakness in a patient with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis after focal botulinum toxin injection. Neurology 1996; 46: 845–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  200. Erbguth F, Claus D, Engelhardt A, et al. Systemic effect of local botulinum toxin injections unmasks subclinical Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1993; 56: 1235–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  201. Tuite PJ, Lang AE. Severe and prolonged dysphagia complicating botulinum toxin A injections for dystonia in Machado-Joseph disease. Neurology 1996; 46: 846

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  202. Ruiz PJG, Bernardos VS. Intramuscular phenol injection for severe cervical dystonia. J Neurol 2000; 247(2): 146–7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  203. Koman LA, Mooney JF III, Smith BP. Neuromuscular blockade in the management of cerebral palsy. J Child Neurol 1996; 11 Suppl. 1: S23–8

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  204. Bodine-Fowler SC, Allsing S, Botte MJ. Time course of muscle atrophy and recovery following a phenol-induced nerve block. Muscle Nerve 1996; 19: 497–504

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  205. Poemnyi FA, Barsukova MD, Gutorova I. [Treatment of spastic torticollis with phenol-glycerin and alcohol-novocaine blockade]. Zh Nevropatol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova 1976; 76: 1326–30

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  206. Massey JM. Treatment of spasmodic torticollis with intramuscular phenol injection [letter]. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1995; 58: 258–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  207. Bertrand C, Molina Negro P, Bouvier G, et al. Observations and analysis of results in 131 cases of spasmodic torticollis after selective denervation. Appl Neurophysiol 1987; 50: 319–23

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  208. Bertrand CM. Selective peripheral denervation for spasmodic torticollis: surgical technique, results, and observations in 260 cases. Surg Neurol 1993; 40: 96–103

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  209. Cooper IS. Effects of thalamic lesions on torticollis. N Engl J Med 1964; 270: 967–72

    Article  Google Scholar 

  210. Hassler R, Dieckmann G. Stereotactic treatment of different kinds of spasmodic torticollis. Confin Neurol 1970; 32: 135–43

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  211. Bertrand CM. The treatment of spasmodic torticollis with particular reference to thalamotomy. In: Mortley T, editor. Current controversies in neurosurgery. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1976: 455–9

    Google Scholar 

  212. Bertrand CM, Molina-Negro P, Martinez SN. Stereotactic targets for dystonias and dyskinesias: relationship to corticobulbar fibers and other adjoining structures. Adv Neurol 1979; 24: 395–9

    Google Scholar 

  213. Bertrand C, Molina-Negro P, Martinez SN. Combined stereo-tactic and peripheral surgical approach for spasmodic torticollis. Appl Neurophysiol 1978; 41: 122–33

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  214. Bertrand C, Molina NP, Martinez SN. Technical aspects of selective peripheral denervation for spasmodic torticollis. Appl Neurophysiol 1982; 45: 326–30

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  215. Bertrand CM. Stereotactic and peripheral surgery for the control ov movement disorders. In: Barbeau A, editor. Disorders of movements: current status of modern therapy. Lancaster: MTP Press, 1981: 191–208

    Google Scholar 

  216. Bertrand CM, Molina Negro P. Selective peripheral denervation in 111 cases of spasmodic torticollis: rationale and results. Adv Neurol 1988; 50: 637–43

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  217. Arce C, Russo L. Selective peripheral denervation: a surgical alternative in the treatment of spasmodic torticollis. Review of fifty five patients. Mov Disord 1992; 7: 128

    Google Scholar 

  218. Davis DH, Ahlskog JE, Litchy WJ, et al. Selective peripheral denervation for torticollis: preliminary results. Mayo Clin Proc 1991; 66: 365–71

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  219. Bertrand CM, Benabou R. Surgical treatment of spasmodic torticollis: selective peripheral denervation revisited. In: Germano I, editor. Neurosurgical treatment of movement disorders. Park Ridge: American Association of Neurological Surgeons, 1998: 239–54

    Google Scholar 

  220. Bertrand CM, Lenz FA. Surgical treatment of dystonias. In: Tsui JKC, Calne DB, editors. Handbook of dystonia, vol. 39. New York; Marcel Dekker, 1995: 329–46

    Google Scholar 

  221. Benabou R, Molina-Negro P, Bouvier G. Selection criteria for selective peripheral denervation for spasmodic torticollis. Can J Neurol Sci 1995; 22: S26

    Google Scholar 

  222. Krauss JK, Toups EG, Jankovic J, et al. Symptomatic and functional outcome of surgical treatment of cervical dystonia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1997; 63(5): 642–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  223. Braun V, Richter HP. Selective peripheral denervation for the treatment of spasmodic torticollis. Neurosurgery 1994; 35: 58–62

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  224. Ford B, Louis ED, Greene P, et al. Outcome of selective ramisectomy for botulinum toxin resistant torticollis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1998; 65: 472–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  225. McKenzie KG. Intrameningeal division of the spinal accessory roots of the upper cervical nerves for the treatment of spasmodic torticollis. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1924; 39: 5–10

    Google Scholar 

  226. Dandy WE. An operation for the treatment of spasmodic torticollis. Arch Surg 1930; 20: 1021–32

    Article  Google Scholar 

  227. Adams CB. Spasmodic torticollis resulting from neurovascular compression. J Neurosurg 1987; 66: 635

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  228. Freckmann N, Hagenah R, Herrmann HD, et al. Bilateral microsurgical lysis of the spinal accessory nerve roots for treatment of spasmodic torticollis. Follow up of 33 cases. Acta Neurochir 1986; 83: 47–53

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  229. Adams CB. Vascular catastrophe following the Dandy McKenzie operation for spasmodic torticollis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1984; 47: 990–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  230. Friedman AH, Nashold BS, Sharp R, et al. Treatment of spasmodic torticollis with intradural selective rhizotomies. J Neurosurg 1993; 78: 46–53

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  231. Hamby WB, Schiffer S. Spasmodic torticollis; results after cervical rhizotomy in 50 cases. J Neurosurg 1969; 31: 323–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  232. Hamby WB, Schiffer S. Spasmodic torticollis; results after cervical rhizotomy in 80 cases. Clin Neurosurg 1970; 17: 28–37

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  233. Perot PL. Upper cervical ventral rhizotomy and selective section of spinal accessory rootlets for spasmodic torticollis. In: Wilson CB, editor. Neurosurgical procedures: personal approaches to classic operations. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1992: 163–8

    Google Scholar 

  234. Shima F, Fukui M, Kitamura K, et al. Diagnosis and surgical treatment of spasmodic torticollis of 1 lth nerve origin. Neurosurgery 1988; 22: 358–63

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  235. Jho HD, Jannetta PJ. Microvascular decompression for spasmodic torticollis. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 1995; 134: 21–6

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  236. Tasker RR. Outcome after stereotactic thalamotomy for dystonia and hemiballismus — comment. Neurosurgery 1995; 36: 507–8

    Google Scholar 

  237. Tasker RR, Doorly T, Yamashiro K. Thalamotomy in generalized dystonia. Adv Neurol 1988; 50: 615–32

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  238. Gros C, Frerebeau P, Perez-Dominguez E, et al. Long term results of stereotaxic surgery for infantile dystonia and dyskinesia. Neurochirurgia Stuttg 1976; 19: 171–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  239. Caracalos A. Results of 103 cryosurgical procedures in involuntary movement disorders. Confin Neurol 1972; 34: 74–83

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  240. Cooper IM, Bravo GM. Alleviation of dystonia musculorum deformans and other involuntary movement disorders of childhood by chemopallidectomy and chemopallido-thalamectomy. Clin Neurosurg 1958; 5: 127–49

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  241. Vitek JL, Zhang J, Evatt M, et al. GPi pallidotomy for dystonia: clinical outcome and neuronal activity. Adv Neurol 1998; 78: 211–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  242. Iacono RP, Kuniyoshi SM, Lonser RR, et al. Simultaneous bilateral pallidoansotomy for idiopathic dystonia musculorum deformans. Pediatr Neurol 1996; 14: 145–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  243. Shima F, Sakata S, Sun S-J, et al. The role of the descending pallido-reticular pathway in movement disorders. In: Segawa M, Nomura Y, editors. Age-related dopamine-dependent disorders, vol. 14. New York: Karger, 1995: 197–207

    Google Scholar 

  244. Islekel S, Zileli M, Zileli B. Unilateral pallidal stimulation in cervical dystonia. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg 1999; 72: 248–52

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  245. Krauss JK, Pohle T, Weber S, et al. Bilateral stimulation of globus pallidus internus for treatment of cervical dystonia [letter]. Lancet 1999; 354: 837–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The Bachmann-Strauss Dystonia and Parkinson’s Foundation, and FD-R-001452 grant. Dr Velickovic and Dr Benabou have nothing to disclose. Dr Brim is Vice President Development BOTOX®/Neurology Allergan Pharmaceuticals.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Movement Disorders Center, Department of Neurology, The Mount Sinai Medical Center, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, New York, 10029, USA

    Miodrag Velickovic, Reina Benabou & Mitchell F. Brin (Vice President Development BOTOX® Neurology)

  2. Allergan Pharmaceuticals, Irvine, CA, USA

    Mitchell F. Brin (Vice President Development BOTOX® Neurology)

Authors
  1. Miodrag Velickovic
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Reina Benabou
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Mitchell F. Brin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Miodrag Velickovic.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Velickovic, M., Benabou, R. & Brin, M.F. Cervical Dystonia. Drugs 61, 1921–1943 (2001). https://doi.org/10.2165/00003495-200161130-00004

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00003495-200161130-00004

Keywords

Search

Navigation