Summary
Synopsis
Lisinopril, like other ACE inhibitors, lowers blood pressure and preserves renal function in hypertensive patients with non-insulin-dependent or insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM or IDDM) and early or overt nephropathy, without adversely affecting glycaemic control or lipid profiles. On available evidence, renoprotective effects appear to be greater with lisinopril than with comparator calcium channel blockers, diuretics and β-blockers, despite similar antihypertensive efficacy.
As shown by the EUCLID (EUrodiab Controlled trial of Lisinopril in Insulin-dependent Diabetes) trial, lisinopril is also renoprotective in nonnotensive patients with IDDM and microalbuminuria. The effect in nonnotensive patients with normoalbuminuria was smaller than in those with microalbuminuria, and no conclusions can yet be made about its use in patients with normoalbuminuria.
In complications other than nephropathy, lisinopril has shown some benefit. Progression to retinopathy was slowed during 2 years’ lisinopril therapy in the EUCLID study. Although not yet fully published, these results provide the most convincing evidence to date for an effect of an ACE inhibitor in retinopathy. The drug may also improve neurological function, but this finding is preliminary. Lastly, post hoc analysis of the GISSI-3 trial indicates that lisinopril reduces 6-week mortality rates in diabetic patients when begun as early treatment after an acute myocardial infarction.
The tolerability profile of lisinopril is typical of ACE inhibitors and appears to be similar in diabetic and nondiabetic individuals. Hypoglycaemia has occurred at a similar frequency with lisinopril and placebo, as shown in the EUCLID trial. In addition, the GISSI-3 study indicates that the incidence of persistent hypotension and renal dysfunction is increased with lisinopril in general, but the presence of diabetes does not appear to confer additional risk of these events in diabetic patients with acute myocardial infarction receiving lisinopril.
In summary, lisinopril lowers blood pressure and produces a renoprotective effect in patients with IDDM and NIDDM without detriment to glycaemic control or lipid profiles. Like other ACE inhibitors, lisinopril should thus be viewed as a first-line agent for reducing blood pressure and preventing or attenuating nephropathy in hypertensive diabetic patients with IDDM or NIDDM and microalbuminuria or overt renal disease. The EUCLID study, using lisinopril, provides new data supporting an additional place in managing nonnotensive patients with microalbuminuria and IDDM. These findings, together with some evidence for an effect of lisinopril in delaying progression of retinopathy and in reducing mortality, suggest a broader role for the drug in managing diabetic vascular complications.
Rationale for Using ACE Inhibitors in Diabetic Complications
Lack of insulin causes abnormal glucose metabolism in patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM). In patients with non-insulin-dependent disease (NIDDM), hyperglycaemia (leading to poor glycaemic control), hyper-insulinaemia, hypertension, dyslipidaemia and possibly other conditions are believed to be linked to insulin resistance as part of the cluster of conditions known as ‘syndrome X’. The link between poor glycaemic control and vascular injury is currently a topic of much interest.
Hypertension is more common in patients with diabetes than in nondiabetic individuals and is associated with the development of microalbuminuria [small increases in urinary albumin excretion rate (AER)]. Microalbuminuria presages overt nephropathy and renal failure, is linked to retinopathy and neuropathy, and is a risk factor for cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.
A proposed pathogenic factor for microalbuminuria is a widespread abnormality of the vascular endothelium. Abnormal glucose metabolism is one of the likely causes of the endothelial cell dysfunction thought to contribute to microalbumin-uria and diabetic vascular complications.
The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system appears to play a role in causing endothelial cell dysfunction, most plausibly via the undesirable vasoconstrictive and trophic actions of angiotensin II (AII). Local tissue ACE may promote vascular injury by degrading bradykinin and suppressing kinin-nitric oxide—dependent vasodilatory pathways, although this is not proven as yet.
ACE inhibitors reduce blood pressure and proteinuria and delay the progression of nephropathy in hypertensive patients with IDDM and overt nephropathy. These drugs also reduce albuminuria in normotensive patients with IDDM and microalbuminuria and in patients with NIDDM and established nephropathy. Results from the EUCLID (EUrodiab Controlled trial of Lisinopril in Insulin-dependent Diabetes) trial using lisinopril (see Clinical Efficacy summary) support limited data obtained with captopril and enalapril suggesting benefit in retinopathy.
Mechanisms for these effects of ACE inhibitors are not known, but it is probable that vasodilation caused by reducing AII levels increases skeletal blood flow and improves transport of glucose and insulin to muscle. Postglomerular vasodilation reduces intraglomerular pressure and renal afterload, possibly decreasing the risk of protein-induced renal damage. Prevention of the trophic effects of AII and potentiation of bradykinin and nitrosovasodilatory pathways may be involved at a biochemical level. ACE inhibitors also modestly increase insulin sensitivity, but the relevance of this is unclear.
Interestingly, the ACE inhibitor quinapril improved endothelial dysfunction in normotensive patients with coronary heart disease but not heart failure or severe dyslipidaemia. This has implications for ameliorating endothelial dysfunction and correcting metabolic abnormalities seen with hypertension and diabetes.
Pharmacodynamic Profile of Lisinopril
Lisinopril lowers blood pressure and exerts renoprotective effects in patients with diabetes (see Clinical Efficacy summary) without affecting glycaemic control or other metabolic parameters (see Tolerability summary).
Like other ACE inhibitors, lisinopril inhibits the activity of ACE and hence reduces AII activity and increases bradykinin levels. In patients with hypertension, arterial distensibility is improved and blood pressure is reduced, as are systemic vascular resistance, left ventricular end-diastolic and end-systolic pressures, cardiac index and left ventricular mass.
Cardiac output or glomerular filtration rate (GFR) are usually unchanged, renal plasma flow and filtration fraction tend to increase and renal vascular resistance tends to decrease in patients with hypertension treated with lisinopril. Ejection fraction is increased in patients with anterior myocardial infarction receiving prolonged lisinopril therapy. The drug possesses additional cardio-and vasculoprotective effects, some demonstrable in humans, and may attenuate sympathetic nervous system function.
While evidence for an effect of lisinopril on insulin sensitivity in nondiabetic patients with hypertension is ambiguous, it is somewhat stronger in patients with diabetes. Lisinopril increased total and nonoxidative glucose disposal in hyper-tensive and normotensive nonobese patients with NIDDM to a similar extent to the calcium channel blocker lacidipine. However, as for ACE inhibitors in general, the clinical importance of these findings is undetermined.
Lisinopril may attenuate ammonia-induced renal tubular injury associated with proteinuria. Some evidence for improved neurological function in rats treated with lisinopril is supported by limited data in humans (see Clinical Effi-cacy summary).
Pharmacokinetic Profile
Pharmacokinetic details for lisinopril specifically in patients with diabetes are not available. Plasma lisinopril concentrations peak within 6 hours and are detectable for up to 96 hours after a dose in healthy volunteers. Lisinopril is not bound to plasma proteins and its volume of distribution is 124L. The effective half-life of elimination for lisinopril is about 13 hours, which is followed by a longer terminal elimination phase with a half-life of about 30 hours.
Because lisinopril is eliminated via renal mechanisms, its clearance is decreased in patients with renal dysfunction. Although the drug is not metabolised hepatically, there is some evidence for reduced clearance in patients with hepatic cirrhosis.
Clinical Efficacy
Lisinopril (usually 10 to 20 mg/day) effectively lowers blood pressure and improves parameters of renal function in hypertensive patients with concomitant IDDM or NIDDM and overt nephropathy and, more significantly, early renal disease. Renoprotection appears to be at least partly independent of the antihyper-tensive activity of the drug, as shown by its greater effect than calcium channel blockers or β-blockers on AER, despite similar blood pressure reductions.
As well, the 2-year EUCLID study indicates that treatment with lisinopril reduces AER significantly in normotensive patients with microalbuminuria and IDDM and to a lesser, nonsignificant extent in normoalbuminuric patients. AER in lisinopril recipients decreased by 18.8% overall relative to placebo, but the drug was clearly most effective in the presence of microalbuminuria (−49.7%).
Significant reductions of about 40 to 60% in AER and 40 to 50% in fractional albumin clearance rates have been observed in normotensive or hypertensive patients with IDDM or NIDDM and early or overt nephropathy receiving lisinopril, usually 10 to 20 mg/day. Benefits have been achieved in nonsmokers and, to a lesser degree, in smokers. The influence of lisinopril on other parameters such as GFR, renal plasma flow and filtration fraction varies depending on baseline patient characteristics.
ACE gene insertion/deletion (I/D) polymorphism may influence the effect of ACE inhibitor therapy. Diabetic patients with the I/I type may be most likely and those with the D/D form least likely to benefit from lisinopril, as indicated by the EUCLID study.
As regards other microvascular complications, interesting new evidence from EUCLID has demonstrated a delay in progression of retinopathy during lisinopril therapy in normotensive patients with IDDM and mainly nonproliferative disease. Retinopathy progressed in 12 vs 26% of lisinopril versus placebo recipients, yielding a relative risk reduction of 0.41. Limited data suggesting that the drug may improve neurological function require confirmation in controlled trials.
Lisinopril has also reduced mortality rates in patients with diabetes. Post hoc analysis of results from GISSI-3 indicates that early treatment with lisinopril 5 to 10 mg/day improves survival in diabetic patients with an acute myocardial infarction. Six-week mortality was reduced by 44.1 and 24.5%, respectively, in patients with IDDM (n=254) or NIDDM (n=1130) who received lisinopril, compared with no-lisinopril groups. Left ventricular mass has also been reduced in patients with hypertension and NIDDM with or without nephropathy who were treated with lisinopril for 1 year.
Tolerability
Generally, lisinopril appears to be as well tolerated in patients with diabetes as in other types of patients, although adverse events have often not been reported in great detail in clinical trials. Of 3328 patients with NIDDM in a postmarketing study, 2.2% reported adverse events (mainly cough in 0.7% and dizziness in 0.3%) over a 3-month period. Cough was the only event experienced more often by lisinopril than by placebo recipients in the EUCLID trial (4.5 vs 3%).
Hypotension and renal dysfunction develop infrequently during lisinopril therapy. Results of GISSI-3 show that, while lisinopril-treated patients with diabetes experience a higher incidence of hypotension and renal dysfunction than do groups not receiving the drug, the presence of diabetes as such does not appear to increase the risk of these events.
With the exception of hyperkalaemia (which occurred in 11% of patients with diabetes in 1 trial but was not documented in any others), lisinopril has no detrimental effects on serum levels of electrolytes, lipids, plasma albumin, uric acid or creatinine. The number of hypoglycaemic events was similar for lisinopril and placebo (13 vs 12) in patients with IDDM in the EUCLID study.
Although comparative data in patients with diabetes are limited, lisinopril appears to be at least as well tolerated as calcium channel blockers and better tolerated than atenolol.
Drug Interactions
In patients with diabetes receiving lisinopril or other ACE inhibitors, there is theoretical potential for hypoglycaemia to develop when these drugs are coadministered with hypoglycaemic agents. Renal failure is more frequent with ACE inhibitors such as lisinopril when combined with diuretics, than with ACE inhibitors alone.
Indomethacin can attenuate and hydrochlorothiazide and acetylcysteine can potentiate the antihypertensive effects of lisinopril. The incidence of hyperkalaemia with lisinopril is increased by using potassium-sparing diuretics, potassium-containing salt substitutes or high-potassium diets. As happens with others of its class, lisinopril reduces lithium excretion and may potentiate lithium toxicity.
Dosage and Administration
There are no formal dosage recommendations for lisinopril in patients with diabetes, although clinical trials have generally employed dosages used in hypertension (10 to 20mg once daily). General recommendations for patients with hypertension can therefore be used as a guide, with adjustments made for impairment of renal function. Lisinopril is given orally and may be administered without regard to timing of meals.
In the UK the starting dosage of lisinopril is 2.5mg once daily, titrated to response. The usual maintenance dosage is 10 to 20mg once daily.
In the US, the usual starting dosage in patients not receiving diuretics is 10mg once daily orally. The usual maintenance dosage is 10 to 40mg once daily. Caution is needed when using lisinopril in patients with or at risk of hyperkalaemia or renal artery stenosis, or those with volume or salt depletion. In patients with renal dysfunction, appropriate starting dosages are 5 to 10 mg/day for patients with creatinine clearance (CLCR) values of 31 to 70 ml/min, 2.5 to 5mg for CLCR 10 to 30 ml/min and 2.5mg for CICR <10 ml/min.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Langtry HD, Markham A. Lisinopril: a review of its pharmacology and clinical efficacy in elderly patients. Drugs Aging 1997; 10: 131–66
Goa KL, Balfour JA, Zuanetti G. Lisinopril: a review of its pharmacology and clinical efficacy in the early management of acute myocardial infarction. Drugs 1996; 52: 564–88
Cooper ME, Vranes D, Rumble JR. Diabetic vascular injury and ACE: potential for pharmacological prevention of complications of later life. Drugs Aging 1996; 8: 38–46
Baba T, Neugebauer S. The link between insulin resistance and hypertension: effects of antihypertensive and antihyperlipidaemic drugs on insulin sensitivity. Drugs 1994; 47: 383–404
Garber AJ, Gavin III JR, Goldstein BJ. Understanding insulin resistance and syndrome X. Patient Care 1996: 199–211
Reaven GM. Syndrome X: 6 years later. J Intern Med 1994; 236 Suppl. 736: 13–22
Treatment of hypertension in diabetes. Diabetes Care 1996 Jan; 19 Suppl. 1: S107–113
Gilbert RE, Jasik M, DeLuise M, et al. Diabetes and hypertension: Australian Diabetes Society position statement. Med J Aust 1995; 163: 372–5
Nhrgaard K, Feldt-Rasmussen B, Sælan H, et al. Prevalence of hypertension in Type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia 1990; 33: 407–10
Klein R, Klein BEK, Lee KE, et al. The incidence of hypertension in insulin-dependent diabetes. Arch Intern Med 1996; 6: 622–7
Palatini P, Graniero GR, Mormino P, et al. Prevalence and clinical correlates of microalbuminuria in stage I hypertension. Results from the Hypertension and Ambulatory Recording Venetia Study (HARVEST). J Hypertens 1996; 9: 334–41
Anderson J, Rocchini AP. Hypertension in individuals with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Pediatr Clin North Am 1993; 40: 93–104
Gilbert RE, Cooper ME, McNally PG, et al. Microalbuminuria: prognostic and therapeutic implications in diabetes mellitus. Diabetic Med 1994; 11: 636–45
Cooper ME, Frauman A, O’Brien RC, et al. Progression of proteinuria in Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes. Diabetic Med 1988; 5: 361–8
Gall M-A, Rossing P, Skhtt P, et al. Prevalence of micro-and macroalbuminuria, arterial hypertension, retinopathy and large vessel disease in European Type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetic patients. Diabetologia 1991; 34: 655–61
Chavers BM, Mauer SM, Ramsay RC, et al. Relationship between retinal and glomerular lesions in IDDM patients. Diabetes 1994; 43: 441–6
Stehouwer CDA, Nauta JJP, Zeldenrust GC, et al. Urinary albumin excretion, cardiovascular disease, and endothelial dysfunction in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Lancet 1992; 340: 319–23
Beilin J, Stanton K, McCann VJ, et al. Microalbuminuria in type 2 diabetes: an independent predictor of cardiovascular mortality. Aust N Z J Med 1996; 26: 519–25
Rabelink TJ, Koomans HA. Endothelial function and the kidney: an emerging target for cardiovascular therapy. Drugs 1997; 53 Suppl. 1: 11–9
Chen J-W, Gall M-A, Deckert M, et al. Increased serum concentration of von Willebrand factor in non-insulin dependent diabetic patients with and without diabetic nephropathy. BMJ 1995; 311: 1405–6
Fonseca V, Munshi M, Merin LM, et al. Diabetic retinopathy: a review for the primary care physician. South Med J 1996; 89: 839–50
Haller H. Endothelial function: general considerations. Drugs 1997; 53 Suppl. 1: 1–10
Mäkimattila S, Virkamäki A, Groop P-H, et al. Chronic hyper-glycaemia impairs endothelial function and insulin sensitivity via different mechanisms in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Circulation 1996; 94: 1276–82
Graier WF, Simecek S, Kukovetz WR, et al. High D-glucose-induced changes in endothelial Ca2+signaling are due to generation of Superoxide anions. Diabetes 1996; 45: 1386–95
Ceriello A, dello Russo P, Amstad P, et al. High glucose induces antioxidant enzymes in human endothelial cells in culture. Diabetes 1996; 45: 471–7
Giugliano D, Ceriello A, Paolisso G. Oxidative stress and diabetic vascular complications. Diabetes Care 1996; 19: 257–67
Björck S, Aurell M. Diabetes mellitus, the renin-angiotensin system, and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition. Nephron 1990; 55 Suppl. 1: 10–20
Kohner EM. The renin-angiotensin system and diabetic retinopathy. Klin Wochenschr 1992; 69 Suppl. XXIX: 25–7
Allen TJ, Cooper ME, Gilbert RE, et al. Serum total renin is increased before microalbuminuria in diabetes. Kidney Int 1996; 50: 902–7
Okuda Y, Adrogue HJ, Nakajima T, et al. Increased production of PDGF by angiotensin and high glucose in human vascular endothelium. Life Sci 1996; 59: 1455–61
Cziraky MJ, Mehra IV, Wilson MD, et al. Current issues in treating the hypertensive patient with diabetes: focus on diabetic nephropathy. Ann Pharmacother 1996; 30: 791–801
Lewis EJ, Hunsicker LG, Bain RP, et al. The effect of angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibition on diabetic nephropathy. N Engl J Med 1993; 329: 1456–62
Björck S, Mulec H, Johnson SA, et al. Renal protective effect of enalapril in diabetic nephropathy. BMJ 1992; 304: 339–43
Hebert LA, Bain RP, Verme D, et al. Remission of nephrotic range proteinuria in type I diabetes. Kidney Int 1994; 46: 1688–93
Microalbuminuria Captopril Study Group. Captopril reduces the risk of nephropathy in IDDM patients with microalbuminuria. Diabetologia 1996; 39: 587–93
Lebovitz HE, Wiegmann TB, Cnaan A, et al. Renal protective effects of enalapril in hypertensive NIDDM: role of baseline albuminuria. Kidney Int 1994; 45 Suppl. 45: S–150–S155
Navis G, Faber HJ, De Zeeuw D, et al. ACE Inhibitors and the kidney: a risk-benefit assessment. Drug Saf 1995; 15: 200–11
Leese GP, Savage MW, Chattington PD, et al. The diabetic patient with hypertension. Postgrad Med J 1996; 74: 263–8
Jackson WE, Holmes DL, Garg SK, et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor therapy and diabetic retinopathy. Ann Ophthalmol 1992; 24: 99–103
Chase HP, Garg SK, Harris S, et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor treatment for young normotensive diabetic subjects: a two-year trial. Ann Ophthalmol 1993; 25: 284–9
Ravid M, Savin H, Jutrin I, et al. Long-term stabilizing effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition on plasma creatinine and on proteinuria in normotensive type II diabetic patients. Ann Intern Med 1993; 118: 577–81
Mogensen CE. Renoprotective role of ACE inhibitors in diabetic nephropathy. Br Heart J 1994 Sep; 72 Suppl.: 38–45
Mediratta S, Fozailoff A, Frishman WH. Insulin resistance in systemic hypertension: pharmacotherapeutic implications. J Clin Pharmacol 1995; 35: 943–56
Larsen M, Hommel E, Parving H-H, et al. Protective effect of captopril on othe blood-retina barrier in normotensive insulin-dependent diabetic patients with nephropathy and background retinopathy. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 1990; 228: 505–9
Engler CB, Parving H-H, Mathiesen ER, et al. Blood-retina barrier permeability in diabetes during acute ACE-inhibition. Acta Ophthalmol 1991; 69: 581–5
Burnett Jr JC. Coronary endothelial function in health and disease. Drugs 1997; 53 Suppl. 1: 20–9
Feman SS, Mericle RA, Reed GW, et al. Serum angiotensin converting enzyme in diabetic patients. Am J Med Sci 1993; 305: 280–4
Sowers JR, Epstein M. Diabetes and associated hypertension, vascular disease, and nephropathy: an update. Hypertension 1995; 26: 869–79
Mancini GB, Henry GC, Macaya C, et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition with quinapril improves endothelial vasomotor dysfunction in patients with coronary artery disease: the TREND (Trial on Reversing ENdothelial Dysfunction) study. Circulation 1996; 94: 258–65
Donnelly R. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and insulin sensitivity: metabolic effects in hypertension, diabetes, and heart failure. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1992; 20 Suppl. 11: S38–44
Lindahl B, Asplund K, Hallmans G. High serum insulin, insulin resistance and their associations with cardiovascular risk factors: the Northern Sweden MONICA population study. J Intern Med 1993; 234: 263–70
Taegtmeyer H. Insulin resistance and atherosclerosis: common roots for two common diseases? Circulation 1996; 93: 1777–9
Bengtsson K, Orho M, Lindblad U, et al. ACE gene polymorphism in hypertensive NIDDM patients [abstract no. 218]. Diabetologia 1996; 39 Suppl. 1: A60
Ruiz J, Blanché H, Cohen N, et al. Insertion/deletion polymorphism of the angiotensin-converting enzyme gene is strongly associated with coronary heart disease in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1994; 91: 3662–5
Cambien F, Poirer O, Lecerf L, et al. Deletion polymorphism in the gene for angiotensin-converting enzyme is a potent risk factor for myocardial infarction. Nature 1992; 359: 641–4
Panahloo A, Andrés C, Mohamed-Ali V, et al. The insertion allele of the ACE gene I/D polymorphism: a candidate gene for insulin resistance? Circulation 1995; 92: 3390–3
Parving H-H, Jacobsen P, Tarnow L, et al. Effect of deletion polymorphism of angiotensin converting enzyme gene on progression of diabetic nephropathy during inhibition of angiotensin converting enzyme: observational follow up study. BMJ 1996; 313: 591–4
van Essen GG, Rensma PL, de Zeeuw D, et al. Association between angiotensin-converting enzyme gene polymorphism and failure of renoprotective therapy. Lancet 1996; 347: 94–5
Rustom R, Costigan M, Shenkin A, et al. Proteinuria and lisinopril: tubular metabolism, ammonia and injury [abstract]. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1995; 10: 941
Paolisso G, Gambardella A, Verza M, et al. ACE inhibition improves insulin-sensitivity in aged insulin-resistant hypertensive patients. J Hum Hypertens 1992; 6: 175–9
Paolisso G, Balbi V, Gambardella A, et al. Lisinopril administration improves insulin action in aged patients with hypertension. J Hum Hypertens 1995; 9: 541–6
Fogari R, Lusardi P, Corradi L, et al. Effects of lisinopril and losartan on insulin sensitivity in non diabetic hypertensive patients [abstract]. Am J Hypertens 1996; 9: 152
Chen Y-DI, Maheux P, Jeppesen J, et al. Comparative effects of lisinopril and low-dose diuretic treatment on blood pressure and glucose, insulin and lipoprotein metabolism in obese hypertensives [abstract]. Am J Hypertens 1994; 7: 12A
Thürig C, Böhlen L, Schneider M, et al. Lisinopril is neutral to insulin sensitivity and serum lipoproteins in essential hypertensive patients. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1995; 49: 21–6
Zehetgruber M, Beckmann R, Gabriel H, et al. The ACE-inhibitor lisinopril affects plasma insulin levels but not fibrinolytic parameters. Thromb Res 1996; 83: 143–52
Bonora E, Targher G, Alberiche M, et al. Intracellular partitioning of glucose metabolism in type 2 diabetic subjects with and without hypertension, before and after treatment with lacidipine or lisinopril [abstract]. Diabetologia 1996 Aug; 39 Suppl. 1: A36
Cameron NE, Cotter MA, Robertson S. Peripheral nerve function and endoneurial capillary density in streptozotocin-diabetic rats: effects of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition. J Physiol 1991; 435: 19P
Sica DA, Cutler RE, Parmer RJ, et al. Comparison of the steady-state pharmacokinetics of fosinopril, lisinopril, and enalapril in patients with chronic renal insufficiency. Clin Pharmacokinet 1991; 20: 420–7
Shionoiri H, Minamisawa K, Ueda S-i, et al. Pharmacokinetics and antihypertensive effects of lisinopril in hypertensive patients with normal and impaired renal function. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1990; 16
Thomson AH, Kelly JG, Whiting B. Lisinopril population pharmacokinetics in elderly and renal disease patients with hypertension. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1989; 27: 57–65
Flamenbaum W, Chadwick B, Degaetano C. Bioavailability of enalapril (E) and lisinopril (L) in subjects (S) with hepatic impairment (HI) [abstract]. Am J Hypertens 1991; 4: 33A
Hayes PC, Plevris JN, Bouchier IAD. Pharmacokinetics of enalapril and lisinopril in subjects with normal and impaired hepatic function. J Hum Hypertens 1989; 3 Suppl. 1: 153–8
Clark Jr CM, Lee DA. Prevention and treatment of the complications of diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 1995; 332: 1210–7
Nielsen FS, Rossing P, Gall M-A, et al. Impact of lisinopril and atenolol on kidney function in hypertensive NIDDM subjects with diabetic nephropathy. Diabetes 1994; 43: 1108–13
Mogensen CE, Keane WF, Bennett PH, et al. Prevention of diabetic renal disease with special reference to microalbuminuria. Lancet 1995; 346: 1080–4
O’Donnell MJ, Rowe BR, Lawson N, et al. Placebo-controlled trial of lisinopril in normotensive patients with incipient nephropathy. J Hum Hypertens 1993; 7: 327–32
Valimaki MJ. Lisinopril in the treatment of diabetic patients with moderate essential hypertension [abstract]. Diabetes 1991 May; 40 Suppl. 1: 371A
Corradi L, Zoppi A, Tettamanti F, et al. Association between smoking and micro-albuminuria in hypertensive patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Hypertens 1993 Dec; 11 Suppl. 5: S190–1
Gonera RK, van der Heul C, van Boven WPL. Effects of lisinopril and metoprolol on microalbuminuria in hypertensive patients with non-insulin-dependent-diabetes-mellitus [abstract]. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1994; 9: 953–4
Rohr G, for the Lisinopril/Metoprolol Study Group. Evaluation of the antihypertensive effect of lisinopril compared to metoprolol in patients with diabetes mellitus (type II) and mild to moderate essential hypertension. In: Keane WF, editor. A focus on the clinical effects of a long-acting ACE inhibitor/hypertension. New York: Raven Press, 1990: 83–9
Agardh C-D, Garcia-Puig J, Charbonnel B, et al. Greater reduction of urinary albumin excretion in hypertensive type II diabetic patients with incipient nephropathy by lisinopril than by nifedipine. J Hum Hypertens 1996; 10: 185–92
Crepaldi G, Carraro A, Brocco E, et al. Hypertension and non-insulin-dependent diabetes: a comparison between an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor and a calcium antagonist. Acta Diabetol 1995; 32: 203–8
Friedman N, Anzalone D, Wilson A, et al. Efficacy of lisinopril (L) and nifedipine GITS (N) in hypertension associated with non-insulin dependent diabetes (NIDDM) [abstract]. Diabetes 1994; 43 Suppl. 1: 59A
Grandinetti O, Cosentino G, Feraco E. Lisinopril versus ramipril: efficacy and safety in elderly hypertensives with non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus [abstract]. J Hypertens 1992 Jun; 10 Suppl. 4: 222
Slataper R, Vicknair N, Sadler R, et al. Comparative effects of different antihypertensive treatments on progression of diabetic renal disease. Arch Intern Med 1993; 153: 973–80
Bakris GL, Barnhill BW, Sadler R. Treatment of arterial hypertension in diabetic humans: importance of therapeutic selection. Kidney Int 1992; 41: 912–9
EUCLID Study Group. A randomised placebo controlled trial of lisinopril on urinary albumin excretion rate in normotensive insulin dependent diabetes (IDDM) patients with normoalbuminuria or microalbuminuria. Lancet. In press
Hasslacher C. Influence of the ACE inhibitor lisinopril on blood pressure, metabolism, and renal function parameter in hypertensive type II diabetic patients: a postmarketing surveillance study. J Diabetes Complications 1996; 10: 136–8
Bakris GL, Slataper R, Vicknair N. ACE inhibitor mediated reductions in renal size and microalbuminuria in normotensive, diabetic subjects. J Diabetes Complications 1994; 8: 2–6
Crepaldi G, Deferrari G, Mangili R, et al. Effects of lisinopril and nifedipine ‘slow release’ on the progression of albumin excretion rate in insulin-dependent diabetic patients with microalbuminuria [abstract]. Presented at the 9th Meeting of the European Diabetic Nephropathy Study Group (EDNSG); 1996 May 3–4; Parma
Zuanetti G, Latini R. Impact of pharmacological treatment on mortality after myocardial infarction in diabetic patients. J Diabetes Complications 1996; 11: 131–6
Nielsen FS, Rossing P, Ali S, et al. Effects of lisinopril and atenolol on left ventricular mass in hypertensive Type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetic patients with diabetic nephropathy [abstract]. Am J Hypertens 1994; 7: 40A
Tan SA, Tan LG, Berk LS. Lisinopril increases ejection fraction and reduces myocardial hypertrophy in hypertensive diabetics [abstract]. Clin Res 1991; 39: 23A
Holdaas H, Hartmann A, Lien MG, et al. Contrasting effects of lisinopril and nifedipine on albuminuria and tubular transport functions in insulin dependent diabetics with nephropathy. J Intern Med 1991; 229: 163–70
Rossing P, Tarnow L, Boelskifte S, et al. Impact of nisoldipine and lisinopril on kidney function in hypertensive IDDM subjects with diabetic nephropathy [abstract]. Diabetologia 1996 Aug; 39 Suppl. 1: A308
Nielsen FS, Rossing P, Gall M-A, et al. Long term impact of lisinopril and atenolol on kidney function in non-insulin dependent diabetic patients with diabetic nephropathy [abstract]. Presented at the 9th Meeting of the European Diabetic Nephropathy Study Group (EDNSG); 1996 May 3–4; Parma
Bakris GL, Copley JB, Vicknair N, et al. Calcium channel blockers versus other antihypertensive therapies on progression of NIDDM associated nephropathy. Kidney Int 1996; 50: 1641–50
O’Donnell MJ, Rowe BR, Lawson N, et al. Comparison of the effects of an angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor and a calcium antagonist in hypertensive, macroproteinuric diabetic patients: a randomised double-blind study. J Hum Hypertens 1993; 7: 333–9
Marre M. Diabetic nephropathy: the ACE hypothesis. J Diabetes Complications 1996; 10: 126–8
Euclid Study Group. Differences in albumin excretion rate response to lisinopril by ACE genotype in insulin dependent diabetes (IDDM) [abstract]. Diabetologia 1996 Aug; 39 Suppl. 1: A60
EUCLID Study Group. The effect of lisinopril on retinopathy in people with insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM). Presented at the 16th International Diabetes Federation Congress; 1997; Helsinki
Reja A, Tesfaye S, Harris ND, et al. Is ACE inhibition with lisinopril helpful in diabetic neuropathy? Diabetic Med 1995; 12: 307–9
Al-Memar AY, Wimalaratana HSK, Millward BA. Improvement of neurophysiological measures of nerve function with the ACE inhibitor, lisinopril in insulin dependent diabetics with peripheral neuropathy [abstract]. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1996; 61: 223
Zeneca Pharma Inc. Lisinopril prescribing information. Zeneca Pharmaceuticals, Wilmington (DE); 1995 Nov
Zuanetti G, Latini R, Maggioni AP, et al. Prognosis of diabetic patients after myocardial infarction: effect of early treatment with ACE inhibitors [abstract no. 802–3]. J Am Coll Cardiol 1996;27: 319A
Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell’Infarto Miocardico. GISSI-3: effects of lisinopril and transdermal glyceryl trinitrate singly and together on 6-week mortality and ventricular function after acute myocardial infarction. Lancet 1994; 343: 1115–22
Tielemans C, Madhoun P, Lenaers M, et al. Anaphylactoid reactions during hemodialysis on AN69 membranes in patients receiving ACE inhibitors. Kidney Int 1990; 38: 982–4
Thalhammer F, Seisenbacher S, Rödler S, et al. ACE inhibitor therapy in haemodialysis patients on polysulphone membrane; safe or harmful? [abstract]. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1994; 9: 1016
Fogari R, Corradi L, Poletti L, et al. Sexual activity in hypertensive males treated with lisinopril or atenolol: a cross-over study [abstract]. Am J Hypertens 1996; 9: 151
Caravajal A, Lérida MT, Sánchez A. ACE inhibitors and impotence: a case series from the Spanish Drug Monitoring System [letter]. Drug Saf 1995; 13: 130–1
Savino LB, Haushalter NM. Lisinopril-induced scalded mouth syndrome. Ann Pharmacother 1992; 26: 1381–2
Disdier P, Harlé J-R, Verrot D. Adult Schönlein-Henoch purpura after lisinopril. Lancet 1992; 340: 985
Sztern B, Salhadin A, Parent D, et al. Purpuric rash after treatment with lisinopril [in French]. Presse Med 1993; 22: 967
Skop BP, Masterson BJ. Mania secondary to lisinopril therapy. Psychosomatics 1995; 36: 508–9
McAlister FA, Lewanczuk R. Hypertensive crisis after discontinuation of angiotensin-converting enzyme enzyme inhibitor [letter]. Lancet 1994; 344: 1502
Fallowfield JM, Blenkinsopp J, Raza A, et al. Post-marketing surveillance of lisinopril in general practice in the UK. Br J Gen Pract 1993; 47: 296–304
Schratzlseer G, Lipp T, Riess G, et al. Severe pancytopenia in an elderly woman after twelve months’ ACE inhibitor therapy. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 1994; 119: 1029–33
Santori P, Stacchiola T, Rossi M, et al. Immunohemolytic anemia associated with lisinopril treatment: case report [[in Italian]]. Clin Ter 1993; 142: 517–20
Harrison BD, Laidlaw ST, Reilly JT. Fatal aplastic anaemia associated with lisinopril [letter]. Lancet 1995; 346: 247–8
Dabaghi S. ACE inhibitors and pancreatitis [letter]. Ann Intern Med 1991; 115: 330–1
Maliekal J, Drake CR. Acute pancreatitis associated with the use of lisinopril. Ann Pharmacother 1993; 27: 1465–6
Marinella MA, Billi JE. Lisinopril therapy associated with acute pancreatitis. West J Med 1995; 163: 77–8
Standridge JB. Fulminant pancreatitis associated with lisinopril therapy. South Med J 1994; 87: 179–81
Larrey D, Babany G, Bernuau J, et al. Fulminant hepatitis after lisinopril administration. Gastroenterology 1990; 99: 1832–3
Droste HT, de Vries RA. Chronic hepatitis caused by lisinopril. Neth J Med 1995; 46: 95–8
Andrivet P, Simonet T, Rieu P,et al. Adverse effects of lisinopril [letter]. Lancet 1989; 1: 434–5
Herings RMC, de Boer A, Strieker BHC, et al. Hypoglycaemia associated with use of inhibitors of angiotensin converting enzyme. Lancet 1995; 345: 1195–8
Feher MD, Amiel S. ACE inhibitors and hypoglycaemia [letter; reply]. Lancet 1995; 346: 126
Davie AP. ACE inhibitors and hypoglycaemia [letter]. Lancet 1995; 346: 126
Aguirre C, Ayani I, Rodriguez-Sasiain JM. Hypoglycaemia associated with angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors [abstract no. 198]. Presented at the 1 st Congress of the European Association for Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics; 1995 Sep 27–30
Mandai AK, Markert RJ, Saklayen MG. Diuretics potentiate angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor-induced acute renal failure. Clin Nephrol 1994; 42: 170–4
Lancaster SG, Todd PA. Lisinopril: a preliminary review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties, and therapeutic use in hypertension and congestive heart failure. Drugs 1988; 35: 646–69
Suárez C, del Areo C, Lahera V, et al. N-Acetylcysteine potentiates the antihypertensive effect of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors. Am J Hypertens 1995; 8: 859–61 (letter)
Stoltz ML, Andrews JCE. Severe hyperkalemia during very-low-calorie diets and angiotensin converting enzyme use [letter]. JAMA 1990; 264: 2737–8
Finley PR, O’Brien JG, Coleman RW. Lithium and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors: evaluation of a potential interaction. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1996; 16: 68–71
Correa FJ, Eiser AR. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and lithium toxicity. Am J Med 1992; 93: 108–9
Baldwin CM, Safferman AZ. A case of lisinopril-induced lithium toxicity. DICP 1990; 24: 946–7
Fowler S. Lithium toxicity with ACE inhibitors. NZ Pharm 1995; 15: 33
Griffin JH, Hahn SM. Lisinopril-induced lithium toxicity [letter]. DICP 1991; 25: 101
Teitelbaum M. A significant increase in lithium levels after concomitant ACE inhibitor administration. Psychosomatics 1993; 34: 450–3
Lisinopril prescribing information. Zeneca Pharmaceuticals, UK.
Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 1993; 329: 977–86
Diabetes Control and Complications (DCCT) Research Group. Effect of intensive therapy on the development and progression of diabetic nephropathy in the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial. Kidney Int 1995; 47: 1703–20
Krentz AJ. Insulin resistance. BMJ 1996; 313: 1385–9
Steele JW, Faulds D, Goa KL. Epalrestat: a review of its pharmacology, and therapeutic potential in late-onset complications of diabetes mellitus. Drugs Aging 1993; 3: 532–55
Hohman T, Beg MA. Diabetic complications: progress in the development of treatments. Expert Opin Invest Drug 1994; 3: 1041–9
van Gerven JMA, Tjon-A-Tsien AML. The efficacy of aldose reductase inhibitors in the management of diabetic complications. Drugs Aging 1995; 6: 9–28
Barnett AH. Diabetes and hypertension. Br Med Bull 1994; 50: 397–407
New Zealand Society for the Study of Diabetes. Consensus statement: New Zealand guidelines for the detection and management of nephropathy in diabetes. NZ Med J 1996; 109: 378–81
Bennett PH, Jaffmer.S, Kasiske BL, et al. Diabetic renal disease recommendations. Screening and management of microalbuminuria in patients with diabetes mellitus: recommendations to the Scientific Advisory Board of the National Kidney Foundation from an ad hoc committee of the Council on Diabetes Mellitus of the National Kidney Foundation. Am J Kidney Dis 1995; 25: 107–12
Kasiske BL, Kalil RSN, Ma JZ, et al. Effect of antihypertensive therapy on the kidney in patients with diabetes: a meta-regression analysis. Ann Intern Med 1993; 118: 129–38
Gansevoort RT, Apperloo AJ, Heeg JE, et al. The antiproteinuric effect of antihypertensive agents in diabetic nephropathy [1]. Arch Intern Med 1992; 152: 2137–9
Jerums G, Allen TJ, Gilbert RE, et al. Natural history of early diabetic nephropathy: what are the effects of therapeutic intervention? J Diabetes Complications 1995; 9: 308–14
Bauer JH. Are angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors the renal protective antihypertensive drugs of choice? Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertension 1995; 4: 427–31
Fatourechi V, Kennedy FP, Rizza RA, et al. A practical guideline for management of hypertension in patients with diabetes. Mayo Clin Proc 1996; 71: 53–8
The National High Blood Pressure Education Program Working Group. National High Blood Pressure Education Program Working Group Report on Hypertension in Diabetes. Hypertension 1994; 23: 145–58
O’Hare JP. Practical problems in the management of hypertension in the diabetic patient. J Diabetes Complications 1996; 10: 146–8
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Various sections of the manuscript reviewed by: T. Baba, Zushi Hospital, Zushi, Japan; A.H. Barnett, Department of Medicine, Birmingham Heartland Hospital, The University of Birmingham, Birmingham, England; G.L. Bakris, Rush University Hypertension Center, Rush University, Chicago, Illinois, USA; M.E. Cooper, Department of Medicine, University of Melbourne, Austin and Repatriation Medical Centre — Repatriation Campus, West Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia; P. Drury, Auckland Diabetes Centre, Auckland, New Zealand; EM. Kohner, Department of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolic Medicine, St Thomas Hospital, Guy’s and St Thomas’s Medical and Dental School, London, England; Ph. Passa, Service de Diabetologie, Endocrinologie et Nutrition, Hopital Saint-Louis, Paris, France; G. Zuanetti, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche ‘Mario Negri’, Milan, Italy.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Goa, K.L., Haria, M. & Wilde, M.I. Lisinopril. Drugs 53, 1081–1105 (1997). https://doi.org/10.2165/00003495-199753060-00010
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00003495-199753060-00010