Abstract
Synopsis
Sotalol is a nonselective β-adrenoceptor antagonist which prolongs cardiac repolarisation independently of its antiadrenergic action (class III antiarrhythmic properties). The antiarrhythmic action of sotalol appears to arise predominantly from its class III properties, and the drug exhibits a broader antiarrhythmic profile than the conventional β-blockers. Sotalol is effective in controlling paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardias and the ventricular response to atrial fibrillation/flutter in Wolff-Parkinson- White syndrome, in maintaining sinus rhythm after cardioversion of atrial fibrillation/flutter, and in preventing initiation of supraventricular tachyarrhythmias following coronary artery bypass surgery. Sotalol shows promise in the control of nonmalignant and life-threatening ventricular arrhythmias, particularly those associated with ischaemic heart disease. It is effective in suppressing complex forms of ventricular ectopy, displaying superior antiectopic activity to propranolol and metoprolol. The acute efficacy of sotalol in preventing reinduction of sustained ventricular tachyarrhythmias and suppressing spontaneous episodes of these arrhythmias on Holter monitoring is translated into long term prophylactic efficacy against arrhythmia recurrence in approximately 55 to 85% of patients with refractory life-threatening ventricular arrhythmias. In addition, sotalol offers the advantage over the class I agents of reducing cardiac and all-cause mortality in the high risk population with life-threatening ventricular arrhythmias.
The adverse effects of sotalol are primarily related to its β-blocking activity and its class III property of prolonging cardiac repolarisation. Sotalol is devoid of overt cardiodepressant activity in patients with mild or moderate left ventricular dysfunction. The overall arrhythmogenic potential is moderately low, but torsade de pointes may develop in conjunction with excessive prolongation of the QT interval due to bradycardia, hypokalaemia or high plasma concentrations of the drug.
In summary, sotalol displays a broad spectrum of antiarrhythmic activity, is haemodynamically well tolerated, and confers a relatively low proarrhythmic risk. It is likely to prove particularly appropriate in the treatment and prophylaxis of life-threatening ventricular tachyarrhythmias.
Pharmacodynamic Properties
Sotalol is a nonselective, competitive β-adrenoceptor antagonist, devoid of intrinsic sympathomimetic or membrane-stabilising activity. It is unique among β-blockers in that it prolongs cardiac action potential duration and cardiac refractoriness without altering conduction velocity or the slope of phase 0 depolarisation (V̇max). This latter class III effect, which is attributable to potassium channel blockade, occurs in vitro at concentrations higher than those associated with β-blockade. In humans, the acute and chronic electrophysiological effects of intravenous (0.3 to 1.5 mg/kg) and oral (160 to 480 mg/day) sotalol can be attributed to a combination of β-blockade [as reflected in depression of sinus node function and slowing of atrioventricular (AV) nodal conduction] and class III activity (prolongation of atrial, AV nodal, accessory AV pathway and ventricular refractoriness, and ventricular repolarisation). At therapeutic dosages (160 to 480 mg/day), oral sotalol produces minimal QTc interval prolongation (⩽7%). Modest enhancement of the class III action of sotalol has, however, been noted on long term therapy. The effects of sotalol on cardiac repolarisation appear unrelated to its β-blocking action, since d-sotalol (which has 50-fold lower in vitro β-blocking potency than the l-isomer) is equally effective in prolonging action potential duration.
Sotalol-induced prolongation of action potential duration tends to augment myocardial contractility in vitro, an effect which partly offsets the cardiodepressant effect of β-blockade. In humans, the pattern of haemodynamic effects of intravenous (0.125 to 2.0 mg/kg) and oral (160 to 1280 mg/day) sotalol differs from that of other β-blockers devoid of intrinsic sympathomimetic activity, comprising reductions in heart rate and systolic blood pressure, an increase in systemic vascular resistance, and minimal changes in cardiac output or left and right ventricular filling pressures. A reduction in left ventricular dP/dt in the absence of a concomitant decrease in preload following intravenous sotalol (0.1 to 0.5 mg/kg) is possibly indicative of intrinsic negative inotropy. While no significant deterioration in cardiac function has been noted on long term (⩽2 years) oral therapy with sotalol 320 to 640 mg/day in patients with mildly depressed left ventricular function, a marked cardiodepressant response to sotalol 320 to 640 mg/day has been observed in those with severely compromised left ventricular function and/or inadequate cardiac reserve.
Pharmacokinetic Properties
The oral bioavailability of sotalol approaches 100%, indicating negligible first-pass hepatic metabolism. Maximum plasma concentrations and area under the plasma concentration-time curve values are linearly related to oral dose over the range 80 to 640mg. The hydrophilic nature of the drug accounts for its low affinity for plasma proteins, limited tissue uptake and poor penetration of the blood-brain barrier. The volume of distribution following oral administration is 1.5 to 1.8 L/kg. Hepatic biotransformation of sotalol is limited, and no pharmacologically active metabolites have been identified. Elimination occurs predominantly via the renal route, with 75 to 90% of an oral or intravenous dose being recovered in the urine within 48 hours of administration. The plasma elimination half-life of sotalol is 6 to 15 hours on acute administration, and ranges from 10 to 18 hours at steady-state. The pharmacokinetic properties of sotalol are not significantly modified by obesity or hepatic impairment. Renal insufficiency is, however, a major cause of sotalol accumulation, and largely accounts for the observed reduction in plasma sotalol clearance in the elderly.
Therapeutic Use
The spectrum of antiarrhythmic activity of sotalol is wider than that of conventional β-blockers, and the drug is effective in suppressing both supraventricular and ventricular tachyarrhythmias. Under randomised, double-blind conditions, intravenous (1.0 to 1.5 mg/kg) and oral (320 mg/day) sotalol were highly effective in the acute termination and prophylaxis of spontaneous episodes of paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardias, particularly those with AV nodal or intra-atrial re-entrant mechanisms, but less effective against paroxysmal atrial fibrillation and flutter. By virtue of its effects on accessory AV pathways, sotalol slowed the ventricular response or converted to sinus rhythm re-entrant tachycardias and atrial fibrillation/flutter complicating the Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome. Oral sotalol 80 to 1280 mg/day provided effective long term prophylaxis of recurrent paroxysmal supraventricular tachyarrhythmias: approximately 45 to 90% of patients remained free of recurrence of re-entrant tachycardia on prolonged (⩽47 months) therapy, while approximately 40 to 50% of patients remained in sinus rhythm at 6 months after cardioversion of atrial fibrillation. Sotalol 160 to 320 mg/day was as effective as quinidine 1200 mg/day in the long term prevention of recurrence of chronic atrial fibrillation after cardioversion, was better tolerated and, in the event of treatment failure, provided more effective control of the ventricular response. Acute postoperative administration of sotalol 120 to 240 mg/day significantly reduced the incidence of supraventricular tachyarrhythmias, especially atrial fibrillation, following coronary artery bypass graft surgery, proving more effective than metoprolol 150 mg/ day in this setting.
Sotalol is effective in suppressing nonmalignant and life-threatening ventricular tachyarrhythmias, including ventricular fibrillation, particularly when associated with ischaemic heart disease. Sotalol 160 to 640 mg/day reduced ventricular ectopy, most notably higher grade ventricular arrhythmias (polymorphic and repetitive premature ventricular complexes, couplets and runs of nonsustained ventricular tachycardia); this action was maintained in the presence of mild left ventricular dysfunction and was sustained on long term (⩽2 years) therapy. The antiectopic action of sotalol 160 to 320 mg/day was superior to that of propranolol 120 to 240 mg/day and metoprolol 100 mg/day on short term (⩽4 weeks) administration to patients with frequent ventricular ectopy. Sotalol-induced suppression of ventricular ectopy appeared to be associated with a trend toward improved long term survival postmyocardial infarction. Oral sotalol 160 to 960 mg/day prevented reinduction of sustained ventricular tachycardia/fibrillation in 20 to 65% of patients with refractory life-threatening ventricular arrhythmias, and converted the ventricular tachycardia from a sustained to a nonsustained form in a further 5 to 27% of patients. A positive response to oral sotalol on acute electrophysiological testing or Holter monitoring appeared predictive of antiarrhythmic efficacy on long term therapy, with approximately 55 to 100% of initial responders remaining free of arrhythmia recurrence during long term (⩽6 years) follow-up. Additionally, the incidence of cardiac and all-cause mortality in patients with life-threatening ventricular tachyarrhythmias was significantly lower during long term treatment with sotalol than with class I agents. Sotalol 160 to 640 mg/day was of comparable efficacy to amiodarone 300 to 1200 mg/day in the long term (1 year) treatment of malignant ventricular arrhythmias.
Tolerability
Analysis of pooled data from a total of 1288 patients with supraventricular or ventricular arrhythmias participating in 12 major controlled studies, indicates that the adverse effects of sotalol are essentially related to its β-adrenoceptor-blocking properties and its class III action of prolonging cardiac repolarisation. Dyspnoea, fatigue, bradycardia, asthenia and headache were the most common adverse effects of sotalol (≈ 10 to 20% of patients); aggravation of heart failure necessitated treatment withdrawal in 1.5% of patients. Factors predisposing to a deterioration in left ventricular function included a low baseline ejection fraction, and history of congestive heart failure, cardiomegaly or cardiomyopathy. The incidence of proarrhythmia possibly or probably attributable to sotalol treatment was 4.3%. Torsade de pointes, the most readily recognised drug-induced proarrhythmia, occurred in 1.9% of patients, and was frequently associated with an underlying history of life-threatening ventricular arrhythmia secondary to cardiomyopathy or myocardial infarction. Torsade de pointes has most commonly been reported in association with hypokalaemia, bradycardia or high plasma drug concentrations (e.g. as a consequence of over-dosage or renal failure) leading to excessive QT interval prolongation. Symptomatic cases of sotalol-induced torsade de pointes have generally been self-terminating or controlled by ventricular overdrive pacing or defibrillation, intravenous isoprenaline (isoproterenol) or magnesium sulphate infusion, or haemodialysis.
Dosage and Administration
Intravenous sotalol is well tolerated and effective in the treatment of arrhythmias at doses of approximately 1.0 to 2.0 mg/kg administered in conjunction with ECG and blood pressure monitoring. Oral dosages ranging from 160 to 480 mg/day are generally administered on a twice daily regimen. Dosage adjustment should not be performed more frequently than every 2 to 3 days, to a maximum of 480 mg/day. Although sotalol has been administered at oral dosages in excess of 480 mg/day, its safety at these higher dosages remains to be established. The concomitant use of sotalol with potassium-depleting diuretics requires caution, particularly in the absence of potassium supplementation, while concomitant therapy with drugs which prolong the QTc interval should be avoided. Caution is required in the use of sotalol in patients with markedly depressed left ventricular function or moderate to severe congestive heart failure. Sotalol dosing interval should be extended from the usual 12 hours to 24 to 48 hours in patients with impaired renal function, and in those with severe renal impairment sotalol dosage should be individualised.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aberg G, Dzedin T, Lundholm L, Olsson L, Svedmyr N. A comparative study of some cardiovascular effects of sotalol (MJ 1999) and propranolol. Life Sciences 8: 353–365, 1969
Abernethy DR, Greenblatt DJ, Divoll M, Harmatz JS, Shader RI. Alterations in drug disposition and clearance due to obesity. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 217: 681–685, 1981a
Abernethy DR. Greenblatt DJ, Smith TB. Digoxin disposition in obesity: clinical pharmacokinetic investigation. American Heart Journal 102: 740–744, 1981b
Amiodarone vs Sotalol Study Group. Multicentre randomized trial of sotalol vs amiodarone for chronic malignant ventricular tachyarrhythmias. European Heart Journal 10: 685–694, 1989
Anastasiou-Nana MI, Gilbert EM, Miller RH, Singh S, Freedman RA, et al. Usefulness of d, I sotalol for suppression of chronic ventricular arrhythmias. American Journal of Cardiology 67: 511–516, 1991
Anderson JL, Askins JC, Gilbert EM, Miller RH, Keefe DL, et al. Multicentre trial of sotalol for suppression of frequent, complex ventricular arrhythmias: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled evaluation of two doses. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 8: 752–762, 1986
Anderson JL, Hallstrom AP, Griffith LS, Ledingham RB, Reiffel JA, et al. Relation of baseline characteristics to suppression of ventricular arrhythmmias during placebo and active antiarrhythmic therapy in patients after myocardial infarction. Circulation 79: 610–619, 1989
Antman EM, Beamer AD, Cantillon C, McGowan N, Friedman PL. Therapy of refractory symptomatic atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter: a staged care approach with new antiarrhythmic drugs. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 15: 698–707, 1990
Antonaccio MJ, Gomoll A. Pharmacology, pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of sotalol. American Journal of Cardiology 65: 12A–21A, 1990
Anttila M, Arstila M, Pfeffer M, Tikkanen R, Vallinkoski V, et al. Human pharmacokinetics of sotalol. Acta Pharmacologica et Toxicologica 39: 118–128, 1976
Arstall MA, Hii JTY, Lehman RG, Horowitz JD. Sotalol-induced torsade de pointes: management with magnesium infusion. Postgraduate Medical Journal 68: 289–290, 1992
Åström M, Edhag O, Nyquist O, Vallin H. Electrophysiological effects of intravenous sotalol in acute myocardial infarction: a double-blind placebo-controlled study. European Heart Journal 11: 35–42, 1990
Bacaner MB, Clay JR, Shrier A, Brochu RM. Potassium channel blockade: a mechanism for suppressing ventricular fibrillation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United State of America 83: 2223–2227, 1986
Baliga BG Beta blocker poisoning prolongation of Q-T interval and inversion of T wave Journal of the Indian Medical Associaton 83 165 1985
Beattie JM Sotalol induced torsade de pointes Scottish Medical Journal 29 240–244, 1984
Berger F, Borchard U, Hafner D Effects of (+)- and (±)-sotalol on repolanzing outward currents and pacemaker current in sheep cardiac Purkinje fibres Naunyn-Schmiedeberg’s Archives of Pharmacology 340 696–704, 1989
Berglund G Descamps R, Thomis JA Pharmacokinetics of sotalol after chronic administration to patients with renal insufficiency European Journal of Pharmacology 18 321–326, 1980
Berman ND, Loukides JE A comparison of the cellular electrophysiology of mexiletme and sotalol, singly and combined, in canine Purkinje fibers Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology 12 286–292, 1988
Berman ND, Wang L-Y, Ahmed A The cellular electropharmacology of mexiletme combined with sotalol in porcine papillary muscle and Purkinje fibre I Alteration of mexiletine-induced Vmax depression Canadian Journal of Cardiology 6 416–422, 1990a
Berman ND, Wang L-Y, Ahmed A The cellular electropharmacology of mexiletme combined with sotalol in porcine papillary muscle and Purkinje fibre II Effects on action potential duration and refractoriness Canadian Journal of Cardiology 6 423–430 1990b
Bertnx L, Timour-Chah Q, Lang J, Lakhal M, Faucon G Protection against ventricular and atnal fibrillation by sotalol Cardiovascular Research 20 358–363, 1986
Blair AD, Burgess ED, Maxwell BM, Cutler RE Sotalol kinetics in renal insufficiency Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 29 457–463, 1981
Blinks JR Evaluation of the cardiac effects of several beta-adrenergic blocking agents Annals of the New York Academy of Science 139 673–690, 1967
Blomstrom-Lundqvist CB, Dohnal M, Hirsch I, Lindblad A, Hjalmarson A, et al Effect of long term treatment with metoprolol and sotalol on ventricular repolansation measured by use of transoesophageal atnal pacing Bntish Heart Journal 55 181–186, 1986
Borggrefe M, Breithardt G Electrophysiologic effect of sotalol in supraventncular tachycardias Zeitschrift fur Kardiologie 74 506–511, 1985
Bourne G, Talajic M, Wang Z, Wang J, Villemaire C, et al The mechanism of action of sotalol in experimental atnal fibrillation Abstract Canadian Journal of Cardiology 8 (Suppl B) 131B, 1992
Boutagy J, Shenfield GM Simplified procedure for the determination of sotalol in plasma by high-performance liquid chromatography Journal of Chromatography 565 523–528, 1991
Brachmann J, Beyer T, Schmitt C, Schols W, Montero M, et al Electrophysiologic and antiarrhythmic effects of D-sotalol Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology 20 (Suppl 2) S91–S95, 1992a
Brachmann J, Schmitt C, Schols W, Beyer T, Montero M, et al Acute antiarrhythmic efficacy of intravenous and oral d-sotalol in patients with sustained ventncular tachyarrhythmias Abstract Journal of the Amencan College of Cardiology 19 244A, 1992b
Brachmann J, Schmitt C, Waldecker B, Schols W, Beyer T, et al Acute and chronic efficacy of sotalol for treatment of ventncular tachyarrhythmias Abstract Journal of the Amencan College of Cardiology 17 137A, 1991
Brodde O-E, Michel MC, Wang X-L, Zerkowski H-R Chronic beta-adrenoceptor antagonist treatent modulates human cardiac and vascular beta-adrenoceptor density in a subtype-selective fashion Journal of Hypertension 6 (Suppl 4) S497–S500, 1988
Brodde O-E, Zerkowski H-R, Borst HG, Maier W, Michel MC Drug- and disease-induced changes of human cardiac β1- and β2-adrenoceptors European Heart Journal 10 (Suppl B) 38–44, 1989
Brooks H, Banas J, Meister S, Szucs M, Dalen J, et al Sotalolinduced beta-blockade in cardiac patients Circulation 42 99–110, 1970
Brown HC, Carruthers SG, Kelly JG, McDevitt DG, Shanks RG Observations on the efficacy and pharmacokinetics of sotalol after oral administration European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 9 367–372, 1976
Buchanan LV, Kabell G, Turcotte UM, Brunden MN, Gibson JK Effects of lbutilide on spontaneous and induced ventncular arrhythmias in 24-hour canine myocardial infarction a comparative study with sotalol and encainide Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology 19 256–263, 1992
Burckhardt D, Pfisterer M, Hoffmann A, Burkart F, Emmenegger H, et al Effects of the beta-adrenoceptor blocking agent sotalol on ventncular arrhythmias in patients with chronic ischemic heart disease Cardiology 70 (Suppl 1) 114–121,1983
Busch AE, Netzer T, Ullnch F, Mutschier E Antiarrhythmic properties of benzyl-tnamterene denvatives in the coronary artery ligated and reperfused rat Arzneimittel-Forschung 41 125–127, 1991
Camm AJ, Paul V Sotalol for paroxysmal supraventncular tachycardias Amencan Journal of Cardiology 65 67A–73A, 1990
Campbell TJ Cellular electrophysiological effects of D- and DL-sotalol in guinea-pig sinoatrial node, atrium and ventncle and human atrium differential tissue sensitivity Bntish Journal of Pharmacology 90 593–599, 1987
Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial (CAST) Investigators Preliminary report effect of encainide and flecainide on mortality in a randomized tnal of arrhythmia suppression after myocardial infarction New England Journal of Medicine 321 406–412, 1989
Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Tnal II Investigators Effect of the antiarrhythmic agent moncizine on survival after myocardial infarction New England Journal of Medicine 327 227–233, 1992
Carmehet E Electrophysiologic and voltage clamp analysis of the effects of sotalol on isolated cardiac muscle and Purkinje fibers Journal of Pharmacology and Expenmental Therapeutics 232 817–825, 1985
Carr RA, Foster RT, Bhanji NH Stereospecific high-performance liquid Chromatographic assay of sotalol in plasma Pharmaceutical Research 8 1195–1198,1991
Carr RA, Foster RT, Lewanczuk RZ, Hamilton PG Pharmacokinetics of sotalol enantiomers in humans Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 32 1105–1109,1992
Cassidy DM, Arenal A, Roy D Oral sotalol electrophysiological effects and long term efficacy in patients with recurrent supraventncular tachycardia Abstract Journal of the Amencan College of Cardiology 9 49A, 1987
Chezalviel F, Weissenburger J, Guhennec C, Jagueux M, Davy JM, et al Antiarrhythmic effect of a sotalol/mexiletine combination on induced ventncular tachycardia in dogs Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology 21 212–220, 1993
Cobbe SM, Alexopoulos D, Winner SJ, McCaie CP, Cobbe PC, et al A companson of the long-term effects of sotalol and atenolol on QT interval and arrhythmias after myocardial infarction European Heart Journal 9 24–31, 1988
Cobbe SM, Hoffman E, Ritzenhoff A, Brachmann J, Kubler W, et al Action of sotalol on potential reentrant pathways and ventncular tachyarrhythmias in conscious dogs in the late postmyocardial infarction phase Circulation 68 865–871, 1983
Cockrell JL, Fan W, Sung RJ Safety and efficacy of intravenous sotalol in terminating supraventncular tachyarrhythmias Abstract Journal of the Amencan College of Cardiology 17 56A, 1991
Coplen SE, Antman EM, Berlin JA, Hewitt P, Chalmers TC Efficacy and safety of quinidine therapy for maintenance of sinus rhythm after cardioversion: a meta-analysis of randomized control trials. Circulation 82: 1106–1116, 1990
Creamer JE, Nathan AW, Shennan A, Camm AJ. Acute and chronic effects of sotalol and propranolol on ventricular repolarization using constant-rate pacing. American Journal of Cardiology 57: 1092–1096, 1986
Culling W, Penny WJ, Sheridan DJ. Effects of sotalol on arrhythmias and electrophysiology during myocardial ischemia and reperfusion. Cardiovascular Research 18: 397–404, 1984
Davison MB, McLaran CJ, Stafford WJ, Masterson M. Is the response to procainamide predictive for sotalol in inducible ventricular tachycardia? Abstract. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Medicine 19 (Suppl. 1): 566, 1989
Deedwania PC. Antiarrhythmic efficacy and risk of proarrhythmia during sotalol therapy for ventricular arrhythmia. Abstract. Circulation 82 (Suppl. 3): III–436, 1990
Deedwania P, Morganroth J. Sotalol is more effective than propranolol in the treatment of potentially lethal ventricular arrhythmia. Abstract. Circulation 78 (Suppl. 2): 11–626, 1988
Denes P, Cemmings JM, Simpson R, Wu D, Amat-Y-Leon F, et al. Effects of propranolol on anomalous pathway refractoriness and circus movement tachycardias in patients with preexcitation. American Journal of Cardiology 42: 1061–1067, 1978
Di Biase M, Stefano F, Rizzon P. Electrophysiological properties of intravenous tenormin in man. European Journal of Cardiology 9: 333–342, 1979
Dumas M, D’Athis P, Besancenot JF, Chadoint-Noudeau V, Chalopin JM, et al. Variations of sotalol kinetics in renal insufficiency. International Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, Therapy and Toxicology 27: 486–489, 1989
Dumoulin P, Weissenburger J, Poirier JM, Rosensztajn L, Gallet B, et al. Electrophysiological effects of intravenous sotalol. Relation with plasma levels. Archives des Maladies du Coeur et des Vaisseaux 78: 562–568, 1985
Echt DS, Berte LE, Clusin WT, Samuelsson RG, Harrison DC, et al. Prolongation of the human cardiac monophasic action potential by sotalol. American Journal of Cardiology 50: 1082–1086, 1982
Edvardsson N, Hirsch L, Emmanuelsson H, Ponten J, Olsson SB. Sotalol-induced delayed ventricular repolarization in man. European Heart Journal 1: 335–340, 1980
Edvardsson N, Olsson B. Effects of acute and chronic beta-receptor blockade on ventricular repolarisation in man. British Heart Journal 45: 628–636, 1981
Elonen E, Neuvonen PJ, Tarssanen L, Kala R. Sotalol intoxication with prolonged QT interval and severe tachyarrhythmias. British Medical Journal 1: 1184, 1979
El-Sherif N, Zeiler RH, Craelius W, Gough WB, Henkin R. QTU prolongation and polymorphic ventricular tachyarrhythmias due to bradycardia dependent early after-depolarizations. Circulation Research 63: 286–305, 1988
Erkkola R, Lammintausta R, Liukko P, Anttila M. Transfer of propranolol and sotalol across the human placenta. Acta Obstetrica Gynecologica Scandinavica 61: 31–34, 1982
Euler DE, Scanion PJ. Comparative effects of antiarrhythmic drugs on the ventricular fibrillation threshold. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology 11: 291–298, 1988
Feld GK, Venkatesh N, Singh BN. Pharmacologic conversion and suppression of experimental canine atrial flutter: differing effects of d-sotalol, quinidine, and lidocaine and significance of changes in refractoriness and conduction. Circulation 74: 197–204, 1986
Fiset C, Philippon F, Gilbert M, Turgeon J. Stereoselective high performance liquid Chromatographic assay for determination of sotalol enantiomers in biological fluids. Journal of Chromatography 612: 231–237, 1993a
Fiset C, Philippon F, Gilbert M, Turgeon J. Stereoselective disposition of (±)-sotalol at steady-state conditions. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 36: 75–77, 1993b
Fitzgerald JD, Wale JL, Austin M. The haemodynamic effects of (±) propranolol, dexpropranolol, oxprenolol, practolol and sotalol in anaesthetised dogs. European Journal of Pharmacology 17: 123–134, 1972
Freedman RA, Greenberg GM, Crowell AJ. Prolongation of signal-averaged QRS duration by sotalol in normal and infarcted canine ventricles. Abstract. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 17: 197A, 1991
Freedman RA, Karagounis LA, Steinberg JS. Effects of sotalol on the signal-averaged electrocardiogram in patients with sustained ventricular tachycardia: relation to suppression of inducibility and changes in tachycardia cycle length. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 20: 1213–1219, 1992
Freedman RA, Steinberg JS, Moreno FL, Barton DD. Sotalol-induced changes in signal-averaged QRS duration: relation to efficacy in preventing ventricular tachycardia induction. Abstract. Circulation 80 (Suppl. 2): 11–36, 1989
Frisk Holmberg M, Juhlin Dannfeit A, Kaiser P, Rössner S, Eliason K, et al. Therapeutic and metabolic effects of sotalol. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 36: 174–182, 1984
Fuller JA, Adams GG, Buxton R. Atrial fibrillation after coronary artery bypass grafting. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 97: 821–825, 1989
Funck-Brentano C, Kibleur Y, Le Coz F, Poirier J-M, Mallet A, et al. Rate dependence of sotalol-induced prolongation of ventricular repolarization during exercise in humans. Circulation 83: 536–545, 1991
Funck-Brentano C, Silberstein DJ, Roden DM, Wood AJJ, Woosley RL. A mechanism of D-(+)-sotalol effects on heart rate not related to β-adrenoceptor antagonism. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 30: 195–202, 1990
Giorgi C, Nadeau R, Agha A, Primeau R, de Champlain J. Efficacy of oral sotalol in suppression of premature ventricular complexes and analysis of its beta-adrenergic blocking activity. Canadian Journal of Cardiology 6: 191–197, 1990
Gluth WP, Sörgel F, Gluth B, Braun J, Geldmacher-v. Mallinckrodt M. Determination of sotalol in human body fluids for pharmacokinetic and toxicokinetic studies using high-performance liquid chromatography. Arzneimittel-Forschung 38: 408–411, 1988
Goldstein RE, Hall A, Epstein SE. Comparison of relative inotropic and chronotropic effects of propranolol, practolol and sotalol. Chest 64: 619–627, 1973
Gomoll AW. Assessment of drug effects on spontaneous and induced ventricular arrhythmias in a 24-hour canine infarction model. Arzneimittel-Forschung 37: 787–794, 1987
Gomoll AW, Bartek MJ. Comparative β-blocking activities and electrophysiologic actions of racemic sotalol and its optical isomers in anesthetized dogs. European Journal of Pharmacology 132: 123–135, 1986
Gomoll AW, Braunwald E. Comparative effects of sotalol and propranolol on myocardial contractility. Archives Internationales de Pharmacodynamie et de Thérapie 205: 338–354, 1973
Gomoll AW, Lekich RF, Bartek MJ, Comereski CR, Antonaccio MJ. Comparability of the electrophysiologic responses and plasma and myocardial tissue concentrations of sotalol and its d stereoisomer in the dog. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology 16: 204–211, 1990
Gonzalez R, Scheinman MM, Herre JM, Griffin JC, Sauve MJ, et al. Usefulness of sotalol for drug-refractory malignant ventricular arrhythmias. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 12: 1568–1572, 1988
Gosse P, Durandet P, Roudaut R, Leherissier A, Vrancea F, et al. Effet du sotalol sur la masse et la fonction ventriculaire gauche de l’hypertendu. Archives des Maladies du Coeur et des Vaisseaux 84: 1823–1826, 1991
Gough WB, El-Sherif N. The differential response of ischemic endocardium to type III antiarrhythmics: early after-depolarizations. Abstract. Circulation 74 (Suppl. 2): 11–253, 1986
Guedeney X, Barre J, Ledudal P, Joire JE, Cournot A, et al. Single-dose sotalol kinetics in functionally anephric patients. Abstract. Therapie 45: 78, 1990
Hackett LP, Wojnar-Horton RE, Dusci LJ, Ilett KF, Roberts MJ. Excretion of sotalol in breast milk. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 29: 277–278, 1990
Hafner D, Berger F, Borchard U, Kullmann A, Scherlitz A. Electrophysiological characterization of the class III activity of sotalol and its enantiomers: new interpretation of use-dependent effects. Arzneimittel-Forschung 38: 231–236, 1988
Hanyok JJ, MacNeil DJ. Sotalol versus class I and II antiarrhythmic agents. Cardiovascular Drugs and Therapy 4 (Suppl. 3): 603–612, 1990
Helmy I, Scheinmann MM, Herre JM, Sharkey H, Griffin JC. Electrophysiologic effects of isoproterenol in patients with atrioventricular reentrant tachycardia treated with flecainide. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 16: 1649–1655, 1990
Hill BC, Hunt AJ, Courtney KR. Reentrant tachycardia in a thin layer of ventricular subepicardium: effects of d-sotalol and lidocaine. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology 16: 871–880, 1990
Hill BC, Summers RAHJ, Courtney KR. d-Sotalol has opposite effects from encainide and propafenone on the proportion of episodes of ventricular tachycardia that are sustained in an experimental substrate for reentry. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology 19: 493–502, 1992
Hine LK, Laird N, Hewitt P, Chalmers TC. Meta-analysis of empirical long-term antiarrhythmic therapy after myocardial infarction. Journal of the American Medical Association 262: 3037–3040, 1989
Hiromasa S, Coto H, Li Z-Y, Maldonado C, Kupersmith J. Dextrorotatory isomer of sotalol: electrophysiologic effects and interaction with verapamil. American Heart Journal 116: 1552–1557, 1988
Hoffmann E, Mattke S, Haberl R, Steinbeck G. Randomized crossover comparison of the electrophysiologic and antiarrhythmic efficacy of oral cibenzoline and sotalol for sustained ventricular tachycardia. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology 21: 95–100, 1993
Hoffmann RP, Grupp G. The effects of sotalol and propranolol on contractile force and atrioventricular conduction time of the dog heart in situ. Chest 55: 229–234, 1969
Hoffmeister HM, Beyer M, Seipel L. Hemodynamic effects of the D- and L-isomers of sotalol on normal myocardium. Cardiovascular Drugs and Therapy 5: 1027–1033, 1991a
Hoffmeister HM, Muller S, Seipel L. Effects of the new class-III antiarrhythmic drug D-sotalol on contractile function of postischemic myocardium. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology 17: 581–586, 1991b
Hoffmeister HM, Seipel L. Vergleich der hämodynamischen Wirkungen von D-Sotalol und D,L-Sotalol. Klinische Wochenschrift 66: 451–454, 1988
Hohnloser SH, Arendts W, Quart B. Torsade de pointes during sotalol therapy. Abstract. European Heart Journal 13 (Suppl.): 305, 1992a
Hohnloser SH, Zabel M, Krause T, Just H. Short- and long-term antiarrhythmic and haemodynamic effects of d,l-sotalol in patients with symptomatic ventricular arrhythmias. American Heart Journal 123: 1220–1224, 1992b
Hondeghem LM, Snyders DJ. Class III antiarrhythmic agents have a lot of potential, but a long way to go: reduced effectiveness and dangers of reverse use-dependence. Circulation 81: 686–690, 1990
Horowitz LN, Josephson ME, Kastor JA. Intracardiac electrophysiologic studies as a method for the optimization of drug therapy in chronic ventricular arrhythmias. Progress in Cardiovascular Diseases 23: 81–98, 1980
Houyel L, Fournier A, Ducharme G, Chartrand C, Davignon A. Electrophysiologic effects of sotalol on the immature mammalian heart. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology 19: 134–139, 1992
Hoyer GL. Improved high-performance liquid Chromatographic method for the analysis of serum sotalol. Journal of Chromatography 427: 181–187, 1988
Huikuri HV, Koistinen MJ, Takkunen JT. Efficacy of intravenous sotalol for suppressing inducibility of supraventricular tachycardias at rest and during isometric exercise. American Journal of Cardiology 69: 498–502, 1992
Huikuri HV, Yli-Mäyry S. Frequency dependent effects of d-sotalol and amiodarone on the action potential duration of the human right ventricle. Pacing and Clinical Electrophysiology 15: 2103–2107, 1992
Hutton I, Lorimer AR, Hillis WS, McCall D, Reid JM, et al. Haemodynamics and myocardial function after sotalol. British Heart Journal 34: 787–790, 1972
Ibrahim MM, Zaghloul SS, Helmi SM. Effect of regression of left ventricular hypertrophy following sotalol therapy on diastolic function in hypertensive patients. Journal of Hypertension 5 (Suppl. 5): S411–S414, 1987
Inama G, Furlanello F, Vergara G, Guarnerio M, Braito G, et al. Sotalol in patients with Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome: electrophysiological and clinical study. In Italian. Giornale Italiano di Cardiologia 22: 701–714, 1992
Ishizaki T, Hirayama H, Tawara K, Nakaya H, Sato M, et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics in young normal and elderly hypertensive subjects: a study using sotalol as a model drug. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 212: 173–181, 1980
Jacquet L, Evenepoel M, Marenne F, Goenen M. Efficacy, safety and hemodynamic effects of sotalol in the prevention of supraventricular arrhythmia after coronary artery bypass surgery. Acta Cardiologica 46: 255–256, 1991
Janssen J, Loomans L, Harink J, Taams M, Brunninkhuis L, et al. Prevention and treatment of supraventricular tachycardia shortly after coronary artery bypass grafting: a randomized open trial. Angiology 37: 601–609, 1986
Johnston GD, Finch MB, McNeill JA, Shanks RG. A comparison of the cardiovascular effects of (+)-sotalol and (±)-sotalol following intravenous administration in normal volunteers. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 20: 507–510, 1985
Jones CR, Fandeleur P, Harris B, Bühler FR. Effect of calcium and β-adrenoceptor antagonists on β-adrenoceptor density and Gsα expression in human atria. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 30 (Suppl. 1): 171S–173S, 1990
Jordaens LJ, Colardyn F, Clement DL. A comparison of sotalol and procainamide in symptomatic ventricular tachycardia. Cardiovascular Drugs and Therapy 3: 155–161, 1989a
Jordaens L, Gorgels A, Stroobandt R, Temmerman J. Efficacy and safety of intravenous sotalol for termination of paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia. American Journal of Cardiology 68: 35–40, 1991
Jordaens LJ, Palmer A, Clement DL. Low-dose oral sotalol for monomorphic ventricular tachycardia: effects during programmed electrical stimulation and follow-up. European Heart Journal 10: 218–226, 1989b
Julian DG, Prescott RJ, Jackson FS, Szekely P. Controlled trial of sotalol for one year after myocardial infarction. Lancet 1: 1142–1147, 1982
Juul-Möller S, Edvardsson N, Rehnqvist-Ahlberg N. Sotalol versus quinidine for the maintenance of sinus rhythm after direct current conversion of atrial fibrillation. Circulation 82: 1932–1939, 1990
Kahela P, Anttila M, Sundquist H. Antacids and sotalol absorption. Acta Pharmacologica et Toxicologica 49: 181–183, 1981
Kahela P, Anttila M, Tikkanen R, Sundquist HK. Effect of food and food constituents and fluid volume on the bioavailability of sotalol. Acta Pharmacologica et Toxicologica 44: 7–12, 1979
Kamiya J, Ishii M, Katakami T. Antiarrhythmic effects of MS-551, a new class III antiarrhythmic agent, on canine models of ventricular arrhythmias. Japanese Journal of Pharmacology 58: 107–115, 1992
Kates RE, Jaillon P. A model to describe myocardial drug disposition in the dog. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 214: 31–36, 1980
Kato R, Ikeda N, Yabek SM, Kannan R, Singh BN. Electrophysiologic effects of the levo- and dextrorotatory isomers of sotalol in isolated cardiac muscle and their in vivo pharmacokinetics. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 7: 116–125, 1986
Kaumann AJ, Blinks JR. Stimulant and depressant effects of β-adrenoceptor blocking agents on isolated heart muscle. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg’s Archives of Pharmacology 311: 205–218, 1980
Kaumann AJ, Olson CB. Temporal relation between long-lasting after contractions and action potentials in cat papillary muscles. Science 161: 293–295, 1968
Kehoe RF, Zheutlin TA, Dunnington CS, Mattioni TA, Yu G, et al. Safety and efficacy of sotalol in patients with drug-refractory sustained ventricular tachyarrhythmias. American Journal of Cardiology 65: 58A–64A, 1990
Kidwell GA, Gonzalez MD. Effects of flecainide and D-sotalol on myocardial conduction and refractoriness: relation to antiarrhythmic and proarrhythmic drug effects. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology 21: 621–632, 1993
Kienzle MG, Martins JB, Wendt DJ, Constantin L, Hopson R, et al. Enhanced efficacy of oral sotalol for sustained ventricular tachycardia refractory to type I antiarrhythmic drugs. American Journal of Cardiology 61: 1012–1017, 1988
Koch KT, Duren DR, van Zwieten PA. D-Sotalol in patients with ventricular tachycardia (VT) and compromised left ventricular function. Abstract. European Heart Journal 11 (Suppl.): 242, 1990
Komeichi K, Tohse N, Nakaya H, Shimizu M, Zhu M-Y, et al. Effects of N-acetylprocainamide and sotalol on ion currents in isolated guinea-pig ventricular myocytes. European Journal of Pharmacology 187: 313–322, 1990
Kontopoulos A, Filindris A, Manoudis F, Metaxias P. Sotalol-induced torsade de pointes. Postgraduate Medical Journal 57: 321–323, 1981
Kopelman HA, Woosley RL, Lee JT, Roden DM, Echt DS. Electrophysiologic effects of intravenous and oral sotalol for sustained ventricular tachycardia secondary to coronary artery disease. American Journal of Cardiology 61: 1006–1011, 1988
Krapf R, Gertsch M. Torsades de pointes induced by sotalol despite therapeutic concentrations. British Medical Journal 290: 1784–1785, 1985
Kubac G, Klinke WP, Grace M. Randomized double blind trial comparing sotalol and propranolol in chronic ventricular arrhythmia. Canadian Journal of Cardiology 4: 355–359, 1988
Kuchar DL, Garan H, Venditti FJ, Finkelstein D, Rottman JN, et al. Usefulness of sotalol in suppressing ventricular tachycardia or ventricular fibrillation in patients with healed myocardial infarcts. American Journal of Cardiology 64: 33–36, 1989
Kuck KH, Kunze KP, Roewer N, Bleifeld W. Sotalol-induced torsade de pointes. American Heart Journal 107: 179–180, 1984
Kunze KP, Schlüter M, Kuck KH. Sotalol in patients with Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome. Circulation 75: 1050–1057, 1987
Kus T, Campa MA, Nadeau R, Dubuc M, Kaltenbrunner W, et al. Efficacy and electrophysiologic effects of oral sotalol in patients with sustained ventricular tachycardia caused by coronary artery disease. American Heart Journal 123: 82–89, 1992
Kwan YW, Solca AM, Gwilt M, Kane KA, Wadsworth RM. Comparative antifibrillatory effects of d- and dl-sotalol in normal and ischaemic ventricular muscle of the cat. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology 15: 233–238, 1990
Lamaison D, Vacher D, Berenfeld A, Schandrin C, Lavarenne V. Association de diltiazem à libération prolongée et d’un bêtabloquant dans l’hypertension artérielle. Deux cas de choc cardiogénique avec bradycardie extrème. Therapie 45: 411–413, 1990
Lathrop DA. Electromechanical characterization of the effects of racemic sotalol and its optical isomers on isolated canine ventricular trabecular muscles and Purkinje strands. Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 63: 1506–1512, 1985
Lathrop DA, Varró A. Modulation of the effects of sotalol on Purkinje strand electromechanical characteristics. Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 67: 1463–1467, 1989
Lathrop DA, Varró A. The combined electrophysiological effects of lignocaine and sotalol in canine isolated cardiac Purkinje fibres are rate-dependent. British Journal of Pharmacology 99: 124–130, 1990
Lathrop DA, Varró A, Schwartz A. Rate-dependent electrophysiological effects of OPC-8212: comparison to sotalol. European Journal of Pharmacology 164: 487–496, 1989
Le Coz F, Funck-Brentano C, Poirier JM, Kibleur Y, Mazoit FX, et al. Prediction of sotalol-induced maximum steady-state QTc prolongation from single-dose administration in healthy volunteers. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 52: 417–426, 1992
Lee K, Canniff P, Hamel D, Ezrin A. Cardiovascular effects of WIN 54177–4, sotalol and disopyramide in anesthetized dogs. Abstract. Pharmacologist 31: 190, 1989
Lehtonen A, Hietanen E, Marniemi J, Peltonen P, Nikkila EA. Effect of sotalol withdrawal on serum lipids and lipoprotein lipase activity. International Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, Therapy and Toxicology 21: 73–76, 1983
Lehtonen A, Viikari J. Long term effect of sotalol on plasma lipids. Clinical Science 57: 405S–407S, 1979
Lengfelder W, Rappert-Plösser B, Arendts WK, Scherer J, Senges J. Metoprolol vs. Sotalol bei ventrikulären Arrhythmien. Münchener Medizinische Wochenschrift 133: 295–299, 1991
Lehtonen A, Hietanen E, Marniemi J, Peltonen P, Nikkila EA. Effect of sotalol withdrawal on serum lipids and lipoprotein lipase activity. International Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, Therapy and Toxicology 21: 73–76, 1983
Lehtonen A, Viikari J. Long-term effect of sotalol on plasma lipids. Clinical Science 57: 405–407, 1979
Leonelli F, Masterson M, McLaren C, Stafford W. The effect of sotalol on cardiac conduction, refractoriness and function in patients with impaired left ventricular contractility. Abstract. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Medicine 19 (Suppl. 1): 534, 1989
Lesh MD, Siu AH, Pederson DN, Eggleston R, Gonzales R, et al. Electrophysiologic-guided therapy with sotalol for inducible ventricular tachycardia (VT): long-term outcome. Abstract. Circulation 84 (Suppl. 2): 11–125, 1991
Levy S, Rovini JC, Metge M, Cointe R, Bru P, et al. Intravenous sotalol in the acute treatment of supraventricular tachyarrhythmias. Archives des Maladies du Coeur et des Vaisseaux 79: 1781–1785, 1986
Lewis MJ, Grey AC, Henderson AH. Inotropic β-blocking potency (pA2) and partial agonist activity of propranolol, practolol, sotalol and acebutolol. European Journal of Pharmacology 86: 71–76, 1983
Li T, Carr AA, Dage RC. Effects of MDL 11,939 on action potential and contractile force in cardiac tissues: a comparison with bretylium, clofilium, and sotalol. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology 16: 917–923, 1990
Lidell C, Rehnqvist N, Sjögren A, Yli-Uotila RJ, Rønnevik PK. Comparative efficacy of oral sotalol and procainamide in patients with chronic ventricular arrhythmias: a multicenter study. American Heart Journal 109: 970–975, 1985
Lloyd EA, Charles RG, Gordon GD, Adams CM, Mabin TA, et al. Beta-blockade by sotalol in early myocardial infarction decreases ventricular arrhythmias without increasing left ventricular volume. South African Medical Journal 74: 5–10, 1988
Lynch JJ, Coskey LA, Montgomery DG, Lucchesi BR. Prevention of ventricular fibrillation by dextrorotatory sotalol in a conscious canine model of sudden coronary death. American Heart Journal 109: 949–958, 1985
Mahmarian JJ, Verani MS, Hohmann T, Hill R, Thornton BC, et al. The hemodynamic effects of sotalol and quinidine analysis by use of rest and exercise gated radionuclide angiography. Circulation 76: 324–331, 1987
Mahmarian JJ, Verani MS, Pratt CM. Hemodynamic effects of intravenous and oral sotalol. American Journal of Cardiology 65: 28A–34A, 1990
Manley BS, Alexopoulos D, Robinson GJ, Cobbe SM. Subsidiary class III effects of beta-blockers? A comparison of atenolol, metoprolol, nadolol, oxprenolol and sotalol. Cardiovascular Research 20: 705–709, 1986
Manz L, Kuhl AJ, Luderitz B. Sotalol in supraventricular tachycardia. Electrophysiologic measurements in Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome and AV nodal re-entry tachycardia. Zeitschrift für Kardiologie 74: 560–565, 1985
Marshall RJ, Muir AW, Winslow E. Effects of antiarrhythmic drugs on ventricular fibrillation thresholds of normal and ischaemic myocardium in the anaesthetized rat. British Journal of Pharmacology 78: 165–171, 1983
Martinez-Rubio A, Chen X, Hief C, Büscher A, Borggrefe M, et al. Acute and long-term efficacy of sotalol in patients with ventricular tachyarrhythmias. Abstract. European Heart Journal 11 (Suppl.): 242, 1990
Mary-Rabine L, Soumagne D, Stiels B. Long-term sotalol therapy in patients with ventricular arrhythmias. Acta Cardiologica 2: 89–97, 1986
Mason JW. A comparison of electrophysiologic testing with Holter monitoring to predict antiarrhythmic-drug efficacy for ventricular tachyarrhythmias. New England Journal of Medicine 329: 445–451, 1993a
Mason JW. A comparison of seven antiarrhythmic drugs in patients with ventricular tachyarrhythmias. New England Journal of Medicine 329: 452–458, 1993b
Maynard AE, Carpenter JF, Decker GE, Brooks RR. Efficacy of d-sotalol, sematilide, and UK-68,798 in the rat coronary artery ligation-reperfusion (CALR) model of cardiac arrhythmias. Abstract. FASEB Journal 5: A1216, 1991
McComb JM, McGovern B, McGowan JB, Ruskin JN, Garan H. Electrophysiologic effects of d-sotalol in humans. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 10: 211–217, 1987
McDevitt DG, Shanks RG. Evaluation of once daily sotalol administration in man. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 4: 153–156, 1977
McKibbin JK, Pocock WA, Barlow JB, Scott Millar RN, Obel IWP. Sotalol, hypokalemia, syncope and torsades de pointes. British Heart Journal 51: 157–162, 1984
Meier J. Pharmacokinetic comparison of pindolol with other beta-adrenoceptor-blocking agents. American Heart Journal 104: 364–373, 1982
Mestre M, Escande D, Cavero I. Antifibrillatory effects of RP 58866, a potassium channel blocker, in dog and micropig hearts subjected to ischemia and reperfusion. European Journal of Pharmacology 183: 1239, 1990
Michel MC, Pingsmann A, Beckeringh JJ, Zerkowski H-R, Doetsch N, et al. Selective regulation of β1- and β2-adrenoceptors in the human heart by chronic β-adrenoceptor antagonist treatment. British Journal of Pharmacology 94: 685–692, 1988
Mitchell LB, Wyse DG, Duff HJ. Electropharmacology of sotalol in patients with Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome. Circulation 76: 810–818, 1987
Moak JP. Developmental cellular electrophysiologic effects of d-sotalol on canine cardiac Purkinje fibers. Pediatric Research 29: 104–109, 1991
Mohama R, Yeung-Lai-Wai JA, Alison JF, Lonergan L, Kerr CR. Immediate and long term efficacy of oral sotalol for ventricular tachycardia/ventricular fibrillation. Abstract. Circulation 84 (Suppl. II): II–714, 1991
Montagna M, Groppi A. Fatal sotalol poisoning. Archives of Toxicology 43: 221–226, 1980
Morady F, Kou WH, Kadish AH, Toivonen LK, Kushner JA, et al. Effects of epinephrine in patients with an accessory atrioventricular connection treated with quinidine. American Journal of Cardiology 62: 580–584, 1988
Morady F, Kou WH, Kadish AH, Toivonen LK, Kushner JA, et al. Epinephrine-induced reversal of verapamil’s electrophysiologic and therapeutic effects in patients with paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia. Circulation 79: 783–790, 1989
Morganroth J, Goin JE. Quinidine-related mortality in the short to medium term treatment of ventricular arrhythmias. A metaanalysis. Circulation 84: 1977–1983, 1991
Morris RG. Improved liquid Chromatographie fluorescence method for estimation of plasma sotalol concentrations. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring 11: 63–66, 1989
Myburgh DP, Goldman AP, Cartoon J, Schamroth JM. The efficacy of sotalol in suppressing ventricular ectopic beats. South African Medical Journal 56: 295, 1979
Myburgh DP, Smith R, Diamond TH, Faitelson HL, Sommers DK. A comparison of the efficacy of sotalol and nadolol in the suppression of ventricular ectopic beats. South African Medical Journal 63: 263–265, 1983
Nademanee K, Feld G, Hendrickson J, Singh PN, Singh BN. Electrophysiologic and antiarrhythmic effects of sotalol in patients with life-threatening ventricular tachyarrhythmias. Circulation 72: 555–564, 1985
Nademanee K, Lee IK, Singh BN. Sotalol versus procainamide in the prevention of ventricular, tachycardia induction: a double-blind parallel multicenter study. Abstract. Circulation 74 (Suppl. II): II–312, 1986
Nademanee K, Singh BN. Effects of sotalol on ventricular tachycardia and fibrillation produced by programmed electrical stimulation: comparison with other antiarrhythmic agents. American Journal of Cardiology 65: 53A–57A, 1990
Nathan AW, Hellestrand KJ, Bexton RS, Spurell RA, Camm AJ. Electrophysiological effects of sotalol — just another beta blocker? British Heart Journal 47: 515–520, 1982
Nattel S, Feder-Elituv R, Matthews C, Nayebpour M, Talajic M. Concentration dependence of class III and beta-adrenergic blocking effects of sotalol in anesthetized dogs. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 13: 1190–1194, 1989
Neuvonen PJ, Elonen E. Sotalol, prolonged Q-Tc interval and tacharrhythmias. Lancet 1: 106, 1982
Neuvonen PJ, Elonen E, Tanskanen A, Tuomilehto J. Sotalol and prolonged Q-Tc interval. Lancet 2: 426, 1981a
Neuvonen PJ, Elonen E, Vuorenmaa T, Laakso M. Prolonged Q-T interval and ventricular tachyarrhythmias: common features of sotalol intoxication. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 20: 85–89, 1981b
Niazi I, Naccarelli G, Dougherty A, Rinkeberger R, Tshou P, et al. Treatment of atrioventricular node reentrant tachycardia with encainide: reversal of drug effects with isoproterenol. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 13: 904–910, 1989
Nobile A, Spampinato A, Ansalone G, Sacchetti O, Polzella R, et al. Oral sotalol for prevention of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation: predictive value of the response to transesophageal atrial stimulation. Abstract. European Heart Journal 12 (Suppl.): 337, 1991
Northcote RJ, Packard CJ, Ballantyne D. The effect of sotalol on plasma lipoproteins and apolipoproteins. Clinica Chimica Acta 158: 187–192, 1986
Nötges A, Arendts W, Scherer J, Wolf R. Kombination von Mexiletin mit Sotalolin der Behandlung ventrikulärer Herzrhythmusstörungen bei kardialer Grunderkrankung. Herz/Kreislauf 23:373–376, 1991
Nyström U, Edvardsson N, Berggren H, Pizzarelli GP, Rådegran K. Oral sotalol reduces the incidence of atrial fibrillation after coronary artery bypass surgery. Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgeon 41: 34–37, 1993
Obel IWP, Jardine R, Haitus B, Scott Millar RN. Efficacy of oral sotalol in reentrant ventricular tachycardia. Cardiovascular Drugs and Therapy 4 (Suppl. 3): 613–618, 1990
Ochs HR, Greenblatt DJ, Arendt RM, Schäfer-Korting M, Mutschier E. Single-dose kinetics of oral propranolol, metoprolol, atenolol, and sotalol: relation to lipophilicity. Arzneimittel-Forschung 35: 1580–1582, 1985
O’Hare MF, Murnaghan GA, Russell CJ, Leahey WJ, Varma MPS, et al. Sotalol as a hypotensive agent in pregnancy. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 87: 814–820, 1980
Parker FB, Freiner-Mayes C, Bove EL, Johnson LW, Eich RH. Supraventricular arrhythmias following coronary artery bypass. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 86: 594–600, 1983
Pascoe RD, Stafford WJ, Masterson ML, McLaran CJ. A comparison of the anti-arrhythmic efficacy of low and high dose sotalol in patients with inducible ventricular tachycardia. Abstract. Circulation 82 (Suppl. 3): III–140, 1990
Patterson E. Sotalol and clofilium-induced early afterdepolarizations in isolated canine myocytes. Abstract. FASEB Journal 4: A681, 1990
Patterson E, Lynch JJ, Lucchesi BR. Antiarrhythmic and antifibrillatory actions of the beta adrenergic receptor antagonist, dl-sotalol. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 230: 519–526, 1984
Perrot D, Bui-Xuan B, Lang J, Bouffard Y, Delafosse B, et al. A case of sotalol poisoning with fatal outcome. Clinical Toxicology 26: 389–396, 1988
Petzl DH, Probst P, Glogar D, Schuster E. The effect of sotalol on exercise-induced ventricular arrhythmias. European Heart Journal 9: 265–270, 1988
Poirier JM, Jaillon P, Lecocq B, Lecocq V, Ferry A, et al. The pharmacokinetics of d-sotalol and d,l-sotalol in healthy volunteers. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 38: 579–582, 1990a
Poirier J-M, Lebot M, Cheymol G. Rapid and sensitive column liquid Chromatographic determination of sotalol in plasma. Journal of Chromatography 493: 409–413, 1989
Poirier JM, Le Jeunne C, Cheymol G, Cohen A, Barrés J, et al. Comparison of propranolol and sotalol pharmacokinetics in obese subjects. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology 42: 344–348, 1990b
Raine AEG, Vaughan-Williams EM. Adaptation to prolonged β-blockade of rabbit atrial, Purkinje and ventricular potentials, and of papillary muscle contraction. Circulation Research 46: 804–812, 1981
Rankin AC, Hamilton L, Du D, Newell J, Garan H, et al. Predictors of induced arrhythmia suppression and long term efficacy of oral sotalol in patients with drug refractory ventricular arrhythmias. British Heart Journal 66: 108, 1991
Rehm KD, Schnelle K, Dyde CJ, Blümner E, Arendts W. Plasmaspiegel und Wirkung von Sotalol-HCl auf EKG-Zeitintervalle nach parenteraler Applikation an gesunde Probanden. Arzneimittel-Forschung 37: 1058–1062, 1987
Reid J, Duker G, Almgren O, Nerme V. (+)-Sotalol causes significant occupation of β-adrenoceptors at concentrations that prolong cardiac repolarization. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg’s Archives of Pharmacology 341: 215–230, 1990
Reimold SC, Cantillon CO, Friedman PL, Antman EM. Propafenone versus sotalol for suppression of recurrent symptomatic atrial fibrillation. American Journal of Cardiology 71: 558–563, 1993
Reiter M. Calcium mobilization and cardiac inotropic mechanisms. Pharmacological Reviews 40: 189–217, 1988
Ritschel WA. Compilation of pharmacokinetic parameters of beta-adrenergic blocking agents. Drug Intelligence and Clinical Pharmacy 14: 746–756, 1980
Rizos I, Senges J, Javernig R, Lengfelder W, Czygan E, et al. Differential effects of sotalol and metoprolol on induction of paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia. American Journal of Cardiology 53: 1022–1027, 1984
Rodriguez LM, Oyarzun R, Smeets J, Brachmann J, Schmitt C, et al. Identification of patients at high risk for recurrence of sustained ventricular tachycardia after healing of acute myocardial infarction. American Journal of Cardiology 69: 462–464, 1992
Rogers GG, Rosendorff C, Shimell CJ, Coull A, Bomzon L. Effect of peroral administration of sotalol on the hemodynamics of the baboon. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology 4: 197–204, 1982
Ross DL, Cooper MJ, Davis LM, Skinner M, Ho DSW, et al. Comparison of amiodarone and sotalol in the long term treatment of ventricular tachyarrhythmias based on coronary artery disease. Abstract. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Medicine 21 (Suppl. 2): 545, 1991
Rubin DA, Nieminski NE, Reed GE, Herman MW. Predictors, prevention and long term prognosis of atrial fibrillation after coronary artery bypass graft operations. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 94: 331–335, 1987
Ruder MA, Ellis T, Lebsack C, Mead RH, Smith NA, et al. Clinical experience with sotalol in patients with drug-refractory ventricular arrhythmias. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 13: 145–152, 1989
Ruskin J. The Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial (CAST). New England Journal of Medicine 321: 386–387, 1989
Sahar DI, Reiffei JA, Bigger JT, Squatrito A, Kidwell GA. Efficacy, safety, and tolerance of d-sotalol in patients with refractory supraventricular tachyarrhythmias. American Heart Journal 117: 562–568, 1989
Sallustio BC, Morris RG, Horowitz JD. High performance liquid Chromatographic determination of sotalol in plasma. I. Application to the disposition of sotalol enantiomers in humans. Journal of Chromatography 576: 321–327, 1992
Sanguinetti MC, Jurkiewicz NK. Two components of cardiac delayed rectifier K+ current. Differential sensitivity to block by class III antiarrhythmic agents. Journal of General Physiology 96: 195–215, 1990
Sano T, Sugiyama S, Taki K, Hanaki Y, Shimada Y, et al. Effects of antiarrhythmic agents classified as class III group on ischaemia-induced myocardial damage in canine hearts. British Journal of Pharmacology 99: 577–581, 1990
Satoh H. Class III antiarrhythmic drugs (amiodarone, bretylium and sotalol) on action potentials and membrane currents in rabbit sino-atrial node preparations. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg’s Archives of Pharmacology 344: 674–681, 1991
Schmitt C, Brachmann J, Karch M, Waldecker B, Navarrete L, et al. Reverse use-dependent effects of sotalol demonstrated by recording monophasic action potentials of the right ventricle. American Journal of Cardiology 68: 1183–1187, 1991
Schnelle K, Klein G, Schinz A. Studies on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the beta-adrenergic blocking agent sotalol in normal man. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 19: 516–522, 1979
Schofield PM, Bennett DH. A comparison of atenolol and sotalol in the treatment of patients with paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia. Abstract. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 9: 247A, 1987
Schohn DC, Jahn HA, Schmitt RL, Olier P. Effets hémodynamiques et métaboliques immédiats et à moyen terme du chlorhydrate de sotalol dans le traitement de l’hypertension artérielle compliquant l’insuffisance rénale chronique. Semaine des Hôpitaux Paris 65: 2139–2146, 1989
Schwartz J, Crocker K, Wynn J, Somberg JC. The antiarrhythmic effects of d-sotalol. American Heart Journal 114: 539–544, 1987
Scott Millar RN. Efficacy of sotalol in controlling reentrant supraventricular tachycardias. Cardiovascular Drugs and Therapy 4 (Suppl. 3): 625–630, 1990
Senges J, Lengfelder W, Jauernig R, Czygan E, Brachmann J, et al. Electrophysiologic testing in assessment of therapy with sotalol for sustained ventricular tachycardia. Circulation 69: 577–584, 1984
Sergio SL, Wu K-M, Brooks RR. The role of stimulating train durations of the determination of ventricular fibrillation threshold: effects of d-sotalol. Abstract. FASEB Journal 5: A1216, 1991
Sieber C, Weiss Ph, Follath F. Hemiparese und Torsade de pointes unter niedrigdosierter Therapie mit Sotalol. Schweizerische Medizinische Wochenschrift 120: 1397–1399, 1990
Singh BN. When is QT prolongation antiarrhythmic and when is it proarrhythmic? American Journal of Cardiology 63: 867–869, 1989
Singh BN, Deedwania P, Nademanee K, Ward A, Sorkin EM. Sotalol. A review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties, and therapeutic use. Drugs 34: 311–349, 1987
Singh BN, Nademanee K. Sotalol: a beta-blocker with unique antiarrhythmic properties. American Heart Journal 114: 121–139, 1987
Singh BN, Vaughan Williams EM. A third class of antiarrhythmic action: effects on atrial and ventricular intracellular potentials, and other pharmacological actions on cardiac muscle of MJ 1999 and AH 3676. British Journal of Pharmacology 39: 675–687, 1970
Singh SN, Chen Y, Cohen A, Obeid M, Tracy C, et al. Relation between ventricular function and antiarrhythmic responses to sotalol. American Journal of Cardiology 64: 943–945, 1989
Singh SN, Cohen A, Chen Y, Wish M, Thoben-O’Grady L, et al. Sotalol for refractory sustained ventricular tachycardia and nonfatal cardiac arrest. American Journal of Cardiology 62: 399–402, 1988
Singh SN, Lazin A, Cohen A, Johnson M, Fletcher RD. Sotalol-induced torsades de pointes successfully treated with hemodialysis after failure of conventional therapy. American Heart Journal 121: 601–602, 1991a
Singh S, Saini RK, DiMarco J, Kluger J, Gold R, et al. Efficacy and safety of sotalol in digitalized patients with chronic atrial fibrillation. American Journal of Cardiology 68: 1227–1230, 1991b
Sotaniemi EA, Anttila M, Pelkonen O, Jarvenivu P, Sundquist H. Plasma clearance of propranolol and sotalol and hepatic drug-metabolizing enzyme activity. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 26: 153–161, 1979
Soyka LF, Wirtz C, Spangenberg RB. Clinical safety profile of sotalol in patients with arrhythmias. American Journal of Cardiology 65: 74A–81A, 1990
Spinelli W, Hoffman BF. Mechanisms of termination of reentrant atrial arrhythmias by class I and class III antiarrhythmic agents. Circulation Research 65: 1565–1579, 1989
Steinbeck G, Bach P, Haberl R, Electrophysiologic and antiarrhythmic efficacy of oral sotalol for sustained ventricular tachyarrhythmias: evaluation by programmed stimulation and ambulatory electrocardiogram. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 8: 949–958, 1986
Stiles GL, Caron MG, Lefkowitz RJ. β-Adrenergic receptors: biochemical mechanisms of physiological regulation. Physiological Reviews 64: 661–743, 1984
Strauss HC, Bigger JT, Hoffman BF. Electrophysiological and beta-receptor blocking effects of MJ 1999 on dog and rabbit cardiac tissue. Circulation Research 26: 661–678, 1970
Sundquist H. Basic review and comparison of beta-blocker pharmacokinetics. Current Therapeutic Research 28: 388–448, 1980
Sundquist H, Anttila MS, Simon A, Reich JW. Comparative bioavailability and pharmacokinetics of sotalol alone and in combination with hydrochlorothiazide. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 19: 557–564, 1979
Sung RJ, Karagounis L, Das G, Falk R, Platia E, et al. Intravenous sotalol for the treatment of supraventricular tachyarrhythmias: safety and efficacy. Abstract. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 19: 220A, 1992
Surawicz B. Electrophysiologic substrate of torsade de pointes: dispersion of repolarization or early afterdepolarizations? Journal of the American College of Cardiology 14: 172–184, 1989
Suttorp MJ, Kingma JH, Peels HOJ, Koomen EM, Tijssen JGP, et al. Effectiveness of sotalol in preventing supraventricular tachyarrhythmias shortly after coronary artery bypass grafting. American Journal of Cardiology 68: 1163–1169, 1991
Suttorp MJ, Kingma JH, Tin RMTJ, van Hemel NM, Koomen EM, et al;. Efficacy and safety of low- and high-dose sotalol versus propranolol in the prevention of supraventricular tachyarrhythmias early after coronary artery bypass operations. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 100: 921–926, 1990
Tande PM, Refsum H. Class III antiarrhythmic action linked with positive inotropy: effects of the d- and l-isomer of sotalol on isolated rat atria at threshold and suprathreshold stimulation. Pharmacology and Toxicology 62: 272–277, 1988
Teo KK, Harte M, Horgan JH. Sotalol infusion in the treatment of supraventricular tachyarrhythmias. Chest 87: 113–118, 1985
Thumala A, Hammermeister KE, Campbell WB, Pomerantz B, Overy H, et al. Hemodynamic studies with sotalol in man, performed at rest, during exercise, and during right ventricular pacing. American Heart Journal 82: 439–447, 1971
Totterman KJ, Turto H, Pellinen T. Overdrive pacing as treatment of sotalol-induced ventricular tachyarrhythmias (torsade de pointes). Acta Medica Scandinavica (Suppl. 668): 28–33, 1982
Touboul P, Atallah G, Kirkorian G, Lamaud M, Moleur P. Clinical electrophysiology of intravenous sotalol, a beta-blocking drug with class III antiarrhythmic properties. American Heart Journal 107: 888–895, 1984
Touboul P, Atallah G, Kirkorian G, Lavaud P, Mathieu MP, et al. Effects of intravenous sotalol in patients with atrioventricular accessory pathways. American Heart Journal 114: 545–550, 1987
Trappe H-J, Klein H, Lichtlen P. Sotalol in patients with life-threatening ventricular tachyarrhythmias. Cardiovascular Drugs and Therapy 4: 1425–1432, 1990
Twidale N, Roberts-Thomson P, McRitchie RJ. Comparative hemodynamic effects of amiodarone, sotalol and d-sotalol. American Heart Journal 126: 122–129, 1993
Urech R, Chan L, Duffy P. High-performance liquid Chromatographic assay of sotalol: improved procedure and investigation of peak broadening. Journal of Chromatography 534: 271–278, 1990
Usui M, Inoue H, Saihara S, Sugimoto T. Antifibrillatory effects of class III antiarrhythmic drugs: comparative study with flecainide. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology 21: 376–383, 1993
van Harten J, van Brummelen P, Ooms P, Danhof M, Blauw G-J, et al. Variability in the pharmacokinetics of nisoldipine as caused by differences in liver blood flow response. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 29: 714–721, 1989
Varró A, Lathrop DA. Sotalol and mexiletine: combination of rate-dependent electrophysiological effects. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology 16: 557–567, 1990
Varró A, Nakaya Y, Elharrar V, Surawicz B. Effects of antiarrhythmic drugs on the cycle length-dependent action potential duration in dog Purkinje and ventricular muscle fibers. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology 8: 178–185, 1986
Varró A, Nánási PP, Lathrop DA. Effect of sotalol on transmembrane ionic currents responsible for repolarization in cardiac ventricular myocytes from rabbit and guinea pig. Life Sciences 49: PL-7-PL-12, 1991
Verniory A, Staroukine M, Delwiche F, Telerman M. Effect of sotalol on haemodynamics and renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system in hypertensive patients. Clinical Science and Molecular Medicine 51: 9–17, 1976
Wagner X, Jouglard J, Moulin M, Miller AM, Pettijean J, et al. Coadministration of flecainide acetate and sotalol during pregnancy: lack of teratogenic effects, passage across the placenta, and excretion in human breast milk. American Heart Journal 119: 700–702, 1990
Waleffe A, Hastir F, Kulbertus H. Mechanisms of termination of supraventricular tachycardias by class III agents: a comparison of amiodarone and sotalol. Abstract. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Cardiovascular Pharmacology, Geneva, 1985
Waleffe A, Nzayinambaho K, Rodriguez LM, Dehareng A, Kulbertus HE. Mechanisms of termination of supraventricular tachycardias by intravenous class III antiarrhythmic agents. A comparison of amiodarone and sotalol. European Heart Journal 10: 1084–1089, 1989
Wang T, Bergstrand RH, Thompson KA, Siddoway LA, Duff HJ, et al. Concentration-dependent pharmacologic properties of sotalol. American Journal of Cardiology 57: 1160–1165, 1986
Wang M, Dorian P. DL and D Sotalol decrease defibrillation energy requirements. Pacing and Cardiac Electrophysiology 12: 1522–1529, 1989
Warren R, Vohra J, Hunt D, Hamer A. Serious interactions of sotalol with amiodarone and flecainide. Medical Journal of Australia 152: 277, 1990
Way BPJ, Forfar JC, Cobbe SM. Comparison of the effects of chronic oral therapy with atenolol and sotalol on ventricular monophasic action potential duration and effective refractory period. American Heart Journal 116: 740–746, 1988
Wichter T, Borggrefe M, Haverkamp W, Chen X, Breithardt G. Efficacy of antiarrhythmic drugs in patients with arrhythmogenic right ventricular disease. Results in patients with inducible and noninducible ventricular tachycardia. Circulation 86: 29–37, 1992
Wohlfart B, Noble MIM. The cardiac excitation-contraction cycle. Pharmacology and Therapeutics 16: 1–43, 1982
Woods PB, Robinson ML. An investigation of the comparative liposolubilities of β-adrenoceptor blocking agents. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology 33: 172–173, 1981
Woosley RL, Barbey JT, Wang T, Funck-Brentano C. Concentration/response relations for the multiple antiarrhythmic actions of sotalol. American Journal of Cardiology 65: 22A–27A, 1990
Xu H, Villafane J, McCormack J, Stolfi A, Gelband H, et al. Comparisons of the electrophysiological effects of intravenous sotalol and propranolol on the immature mammalian heart. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology 13: 925–929, 1989
Yabek SM, Kato R, Ikeda N, Singh BN. Cellular electrophysiologic responses of isolated neonatal and adult cardiac fibers to d-sotalol. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 11: 1094–1099, 1988
Zheutlin T, Mattioni T, Chokshi S, Nazari J, Dunnington C, et al. Sotalol for sustained ventricular tachyarrhythmias: predictors of arrhythmic outcome. Abstract. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 11 (Suppl. 1): 55A, 1988
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Additional information
Various sections of the manuscript reviewed by: J.L. Anderson, Cardiology Division, LDS Hospital, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA; A.J. Camm, Department of Cardiological Sciences, St George’s Hospital Medical School, London, England; T.J. Campbell, Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, St Vincent’s Hospital, Sydney, NSW, Australia; D.C. Harrison, University of Cincinnati Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA; K.J. Hellestrand, Hornsby Cardiac Diagnostic Unit, Hornsby, NSW, Australia; H.M. Hoffmeister, Medizinische Klinik, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Federal Republic of Germany; H. V. Huikuri, Department of Medicine, Oulu University Central Hospital, Oulu, Finland; L. Jordaens, University Hospital Ghent, Ghent, Belgium; T. Kus, Research Center, Hôpital du Sacré-Coeur de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada; D.A. Lathrop, Department of Medical Physiology, University of Tromsø, Tromsø, Norway; J. Morganroth, The Graduate Hospital, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA; H. Nakaya, Department of Pharmacology, Hokkaido University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan; T. Opthof, Department of Clinical and Experimental Cardiology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; P.J. Podrid, Section of Cardiology, The University Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA; M. Sami, Royal Victoria Hospital, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada; S.N. Singh, Cardiovascular Research, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Washington, D.C, USA; Y. Watanabe, Cardiovascular Institute, Fujita Health University School of Medicine, Aichi, Japan.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Fitton, A., Sorkin, E.M. Sotalol. Drugs 46, 678–719 (1993). https://doi.org/10.2165/00003495-199346040-00007
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00003495-199346040-00007