Abstract
Persistent non-malignant pain is common, often neglected and under-treated among older persons. Some older adults do not complain because they consider chronic pain to be a characteristic of normal aging. Physicians have concerns regarding adverse effects of pharmacological treatment.
The model of the World Health Organization for treatment of cancer pain is generally accepted and also recommended for persistent non-cancer pain. Furthermore, non-pharmacological treatment should complement drug treatment whenever possible. An initial assessment and possible treatment of underlying causes of pain are pertinent.
Modern pharmacological pain management is based on non-opioid and opioid analgesics. NSAIDs are among the most widely prescribed class of drugs in the world. The new cyclo-oxygenase-2 inhibitors such as celecoxib and rofecoxib offer an alternative for the treatment of mild-to-moderate pain in patients with a history of gastric ulcers or bleeding. Paracetamol (acetaminophen) is being used widely for the management of mild pain across all age groups as it has moderate adverse effects at therapeutic dosages.
For moderate pain, a combination of non-opioid analgesics and opioid analgesics with moderate pain relief properties (e.g. oxycodone, codeine, tramadol and tilidine/naloxone) is recommended. For severe pain, a combination of non-opioid analgesics and opioid analgesics with strong pain relief properties (e.g. morphine, codeine) is recommended.
The least toxic means of achieving systemic pain relief should be used. For continuous pain, sustained-release analgesic preparations are recommended. Drugs should be given on a fixed time schedule, and possible adverse effects and interactions should be carefully monitored. Adjuvant drugs, such as antidepressants or anticonvulsants, can be very effective especially in the treatment of certain types of pain, such as in diabetic neuropathy. Effective pain management should result in decreased pain, increased function and improvement in mood and sleep.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
The use of tradenames is for product identification purposes only and does not imply endorsement.
References
Helme RD, Gibson SJ. Pain in older people. In: Crombie IK, Croft PR, Linton SJ, et al., editors. Epidemiology of pain. Seattle: IASP Press, 1996: 103–12
Nikolaus T. Assessment of chronic pain in the elderly [in German]. Ther Umsch 1997; 54: 340–4
Gagliese L, Melzack R. Age differences in the quality of chronic pain: a preliminary study. Pain Res Manag 1997; 2: 157–62
Crook J, Rideout E, Browne G. The prevalence of pain complaints in a general population. Pain 1984; 18: 299–314
Brattberg G, Parker MG, Thorslund M. A longitudinal study of pain: reported pain from middle age to old age. Clin J Pain 1997; 13: 144–9
Badley EM, Tennat A. Changing profile of joint disorders with age: findings from a postal survey of the population of Calderdale, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom. Ann Rheum Dis 1992; 51: 366–71
Wolfe F, Ross K, Anderson J, et al. The prevalence and characteristics of fibromyalgia in the general population. Arthritis Rheum 1995; 38: 19–28
Sternbach RA. Survey of pain in the United States: the Nuprin pain report. Clin J Pain 1986; 2: 49–53
Andersson HI, Ejilertsson G, Leden I, et al. Chronic pain in a geographically defined population: studies of differences in age, gender, social class and pain localization. Clin J Pain 1993; 9: 174–82
Cooner E, Amorosi S. The study of pain in older Americans. New York: Louis Harris and Associates, 1997
Roy R, Thomas M. A survey of chronic pain in an elderly population. Can Fam Physician 1986; 32: 513–6
Roy R, Thomas MR. Elderly persons with and without pain: a comparative study. Clin J Pain 1987; 3: 102–6
Brattberg G, Parker MG, Thorslund M. The prevalence of pain among the oldest old in Sweden. Pain 1996; 67: 29–34
Brochet B, Michel P, Barberger-Gateau P, et al. Population-based study of pain in elderly people: a descriptive survey. Age Ageing 1998; 27: 279–84
Ferrell BA, Ferrell BR, Osterweil D. Pain in the nursing home. J Am Geriatr Soc 1990; 38: 409–14
Scudds RJ, Robertson JM. Empirical evidence of the association between the presence of musculoskeletal pain and physical disability in community-dwelling senior citizens. Pain 1998; 75: 229–35
Casten RJ, Parmelee PA, Kleban MH, et al. The relationships among anxiety, depression, and pain in a geriatric institutionalized sample. Pain 1995; 61: 271–6
Parmelee PA, Katz IR, Lawton MP. The relation of pain to depression among instituionalized aged. J Gerontol 1991; 46: P15–21
Williamson GM, Schulz R. Pain, activity restriction, and symptoms of depression among community-residing adults. J Gerontol 1992; 47: 367–72
Magni G, Caldieron C, Rigatti-Luchini S, et al. Chronic musculoskeletal pain and depressive symptoms in the general population: an analysis of the 1st National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey data. Pain 1990; 43: 299–307
Lichtenstein MJ, Dhanda R, Cornell JE, et al. Disaggregating pain and its effect on physical functional limitations. J Gerontol 1998; 53: M361–71
Helme RD, Katz B, Gibson SJ, et al. Multidisciplinary pain clinics for older people: do they have a role? Clin Geriatr Med 1996; 12: 563–82
Blyth FM, March LM, Brnabic AJ, et al. Chronic pain in Australia: a prevalence study. Pain 2001; 89: 127–34
Mantyselka P, Kumpusalo E, Ahonen R, et al. Pain as a reason to visit the doctor: a study in Finnish primary health care. Pain 2001; 89: 175–80
Lavsky-Shulan M, Wallace RB, Kohout FJ, et al. Prevalence and functional correlates of low back pain in the elderly: the Iowa 65+ Rural Health Study. J Am Geriatr Soc 1985; 33: 23–8
Sengstaken EA, King SA. The problem of pain and its detection among geriatric nursing home residents. J Am Geriatr Soc 1994; 41: 541–4
Ferrell BA, Ferrell BR, Rivera I. Pain in cognitively impaired nursing home patients. J Pain Symptom Manage 1995; 10: 591–8
Bernabei R, Gambassi G, Lapane K, et al. Management of pain in elderly patients with cancer. SAGE Study Group (Systematic Assessment of Geriatric Drug Use via Epidemiology). JAMA 1998; 279: 1877–82
Weiner D, Peterson B, Ladd K, et al. Pain in nursing home residents: an exploration of prevalence, staff perspectives and practical aspects of measurement. Clin J Pain 1999; 15: 92–101
Weiner D, Peterson B, Logue P, et al. Predictors of pain selfreport in nursing home residents. Aging Clin Exp Res 1998; 10: 411–20
Feldt KS, Ryden MB, Miles S. Treatment of pain in cognitively impaired compared with cognitively intact older patients with hip-fracture. J Am Geriatr Soc 1998; 46: 1079–85
Farrell MJ, Katz B, Helme RD. The impact of dementia on the pain experience. Pain 1996; 67: 612–9
Duggleby W, Lander J. Cognitive status and postoperative pain: older adults. J Pain Symptom Manage 1994; 9: 19–27
Marzinski LR. The tragedy of dementia: clinically assessing pain in the confused, nonverbal elderly. J Gerontol Nurs 1991; 17: 25–8
Avorn J, Gurwitz JH. Drug use in the nursing home. Ann Intern Med 1995; 123: 195–204
Cutler RB, Fishbain DA, Rosomoff RS, et al. Outcomes in treatment of pain in geriatric and younger age groups. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1994; 75: 457–64
Gibson SJ, Helme RD. Age-related differences in pain perception and report. Clin Geriatr Med 2001; 17: 433–56
Chakour MC, Gibson SJ, Bradbeer M, et al. The effect of age on A-delta and C-fibre thermal pain perception. Pain 1996; 64: 143–52
Sorkin BA, Rudy TE, Hanlon RB, et al. Chronic pain in old and young patients: differences appear less important than similarities. J Gerontol 1990; 45: P64–8
Gibson SJ, Voukelatos X, Ames D, et al. An examination of pain perception and cerebral event-related potentials following carbon dioxide laser stimulation in patients with Alzheimer’s disease and age-matched control volunteers. Pain Res Manag 2001; 6: 126–32
AGS Panel on Persistent Pain in Older Persons. The management of persistent pain in older persons: American Geriatrics Society. J Am Geriatr Soc 2002; 50: S205–24
Feldt KS, Warne MA, Ryden MB. Examining pain in aggressive cognitively impaired older adults. J Gerontol Nurs 1998; 24: 14–22
Grossberg GT, Sherman LK, Fine PG. Pain and behavioural disturbancies in the cognitively impaired older adult: assessment and treatment issues. Ann Long Term Care 2000; 8: 22–4
Miller J, Neelon V, Dalton J, et al. The assessment of discomfort in elderly confused patients: a preliminary study. J Neurosci Nurs 1996; 28: 175–82
Weiner D, Hanlon J. Pain in nursing home residents: management strategies. Drugs Aging 2001; 18: 13–29
Won A, Lapane K, Gambassi G, et al. Correlates and management of nonmalignant pain in the nursing home. J Am Geriatr Soc 1999; 47: 936–42
Ferrell BA. Pain evaluation and management in the nursing home. Ann Intern Med 1995; 123: 681–7
AGS Panel on Chronic Pain in Older Persons. The management of chronic pain in older persons: American Geriatrics Society. J Am Geriatr Soc 1998; 46: 635–51
Melzack R, Katz J. The McGill Pain Questionnaire: appraisal and current status. In: Turk DC, Melzack R, editors. Handbook of pain assessment. New York: Guilford Press, 1992: 152–68
Briggs M, Closs JS. A descriptive study of the use of visual analogue scales and verbal rating scales for the assessment of postoperative pain in orthopaedic patients. J Pain Symptom Manage 1999; 18: 438–46
Cleeland CS, Ryan KM. Pain assessment: global use of the Brief Pain Inventory. Ann Acad Med Singapore 1994; 23: 129–38
Gloth FM, Scheve AA, Stober BS, et al. The functional pain scale: reliability, validity and responsiveness in an elderly population. J Am Med Dir Assoc 2001; 2: 110–4
Scherder EJ, Bouma A. Visual analogue scales for pain assessment in Alzheimer’s disease. Gerontology 2000; 46: 47–53
Wynne CF, Ling SM, Remsburg R. Comparison of pain assessment intruments in cognitively intact and cognitively impaired nursing home residents. Geriatr Nurs 2000; 21: 20–3
Huskisson EC. Measurement of pain. Lancet 1974; II: 1127–31
Jensen MP, Karoly P, Braver S. The measurement of clinical pain intensity: a comparison of six methods. Pain 1986; 27: 117–26
Herr KA, Mobily PR. Comparison of selected pain assessment tools for use with the elderly. Appl Nurs Res 1993; 6: 39–46
Herr KA, Mobily PR, Kohout FJ, et al. Evaluation of the faces pain scale for the use with the elderly. Clin J Pain 1998; 14: 29–38
Roland M, Morris R. A study of the natural history of back pain: development of a reliable and sensitive measure of disability in low-back pain. Spine 1983; 8: 141–4
Chibnall JT, Tait RC. Pain assessment in cognitively impaired and unimpaired older adults: a comparison of four scales. Pain 2001; 92: 173–86
Weiner D, Pieper C, Mc Connell E, et al. Pain measurement in elders with chronic low back pain: traditional and alternative approaches. Pain 1996; 67: 461–7
Melzack R. The short-form McGill Pain Questionnaire. Pain 1987; 30: 191–7
Herr KA, Mobily PR. Complexities of pain assessment in the elderly: clinical considerations. J Gerontol Nurs 1991; 17: 12–9
Cook AJ. Cognitive-behavioural pain management for elderly nursing home residents. J Gerontol 1998; 53: P51–9
Johnson M, Ashton CH, Thompson JW. An in-depth study of long-term users of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS): implications for clinical use of TENS. Pain 1991; 44: 221–9
Kost RG, Strauss SE. Postherpetic neuralgia: pathogenesis, treatment, and prevention. N Engl J Med 1996; 335: 32–42
Weiner DK, Rudy TE, Glick RM, et al. Efficacy of percutaneous electrical nerve stimulation for the treatment of chronic low back in older adults. J Am Geriatr Soc 2003; 51: 599–608
American Geriatrics Society Panel on Exercise and Osteoarthritis. Exercise prescription for older adults with osteoarthritis pain: consensus practice recommendations. J Am Geriatr Soc 2001; 49: 808–23
Ettinger WH, Burns R, Messier SP, et al. A randomized trial comparing aerobic exercise and resistance exercise with a health education program in older adults with knee osteoarthritis. The Fitness Arthritis and Seniors Trial (FAST). JAMA 1997; 277: 25–31
Kanis JA. Osteoporis. Oxford: Blackwell Science Ltd, 1994
Ferrell BA, Josepheson KR, Pollan AM, et al. A randomized trial of walking versus physical methods for chronic pain management. Aging Clin Exp Res 1997; 9: 99–105
Ferrell BR. Patient education and non-drug intervention. In: Ferrell BR, Ferrell BA, editors. Pain in the elderly. Seattle: IASP Press, 1996: 35–44
Keefe FJ, Caldwell DS, Queen KT, et al. Pain coping strategies in osteoarthritis patients. J Consult Clin Psychol 1987; 55: 208–12
Keefe FJ, Williams DA. A comparison of coping strategies in chronic pain patients in different age groups. J Gerontol 1990; 45: P161–5
Wright D, Barrow S, Fisher AD, et al. Influence of physical, psychological and behavioral factors on consultations for back pain. Br J Rheumatol 1995; 34: 156–61
Ferrell BR, Rhiner M, Ferrell BA. Development and implementation of a pain education program. Cancer 1993; 72: 3426–32
Hirano PC, Laurent DD, Lorig K. Arthritis patient education studies, 1987–1991: a review of the literature. Patient Educ Couns 1994; 24: 9–54
Weinberger M, Tierney WM, Booher P, et al. Can the provision of information to patients with osteoarthitis improve functional status?: a randomized controlled trial. Arthritis Rheum 1989; 32: 1577–83
Taal E, Rasker JJ, Wiegman O. Group education for rheumatoid arthritis patients. Semin Arthritis Rheum 1997; 26: 805–16
Mazzuca SA, Brandt KD, Katz BP, et al. Effects of self-care education on health status of inner-city patients with osteoarthritis. Arthritis Rheum 1997; 40: 1466–74
LeFort SM, Gray-Donald K, Rowat KM, et al. Randomized controlled trial of community-based psychoeducation program for the self-management of chronic pain. Pain 1998; 74: 297–306
Rakel B, Barr JO. Physical modalities in chronic pain management. Nurs Clin North Am 2003; 38: 477–94
Abbot NC, Harkness EF, Stevinson C, et al. Spiritual healing as a therapy for chronic pain: a randomized, clinical trial. Pain 2001; 91: 79–89
Braverman DL, Ericken JJ, Shah RV, et al. Interventions in chronic pain management: complementary techniques. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2003; 84: S45–9
World Health Organisation. Cancer pain relief with a guide to opioid availability. 2nd ed. Geneva: WHO, 1996
Portenoy RK. Opiod therapy for chronic non-malignant pain: current status. In: Fields HI, Libeskind JC, editors. Progress in pain research and management. Seattle: IASP Press, 1994: 247–88
Porter J, Jick H. Addiction rare in patients treated with narcotics [letter]. N Engl J Med 1980; 302: 123
Forman WB. Opioid analgesic drugs in the elderly. Clin Geriatr Med 1996; 12: 489–500
Fine PG. Opioid analgesic drugs in older people. Clin Geriatr Med 2001; 17: 479–87
Max MB, Payne R, Edwards WT, et al. Principles of analgesic drug use in the treatment of acute pain and cancer pain. 4th ed. Glenville II: American Pain Society, 1999
Nikolaus T. Chronic pain must not simply be accepted: which analgesic for which patient? [in German]. MMW Fortschr Med 2000; 142: 968–72
World Health Organisation. Cancer pain relief and palliative care: report of a WHO expert committee. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO, 1990
Gordon DB. Pain management in the elderly. J Perianaesth Nurs 1999; 14(6): 367–72
Phillips AC, Polisson RP, Simon LS. NSAIDs and the elderly: toxicity and economic implications. Drugs Aging 1997; 10(2): 119–30
Murray MD, Brater DC. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Clin Geriatr Med 1990; 6: 365–441
Bell GM, Schnitzer TJ. COX-2 Inhibitors and other nosteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in the treatment of pain in the elderly. Clin Geriatr Med 2001; 17(3): 489–502
Fu JY, Masferrer JL, Seibert K. The induction and suppression of prostaglandin H2 synthase (cyclooxygenase) in human monocytes. J Biol Chem 1990; 265: 16737–40
Crofford L, Lipsky P, Brooks P, et al. Basic biology and clinical application of specific cyclooxigenase-2 inhibitors. Arthritis Rheum 2000; 43(1): 4–13
Whelton A, Fort JG, Puma JA, et al. Cyclooxigenase-2-specific inhibitors and cardiorenal function: a randomized, controlled trial of celecoxib and rofecoxib in older hypertensive osteoarthritis patients. Am J Ther 2001; 8(2): 85–95
Brune K, Hinz B, Zeilhofer HU. Rational basis for the use of non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs (and selective COX-2 inhibitors) [in German, abstract in English]. Akt Rheumatol 1999; 24: 102–8
Bombardier C, Laine L, Reicin A, et al. Comparison of upper gastrointestinal toxicity of rofecoxib and naproxen in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. N Engl J Med 2000; 343: 1520–8
Thomas J, Straus WL, Bloom BS. Over-the-counter non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and risk of gastrointestinal symptoms. Am J Gastroenterol 2002; 97(9): 2159–61
Monti DA, Kunkel EJS. Management of chronic pain among elderly patients. Psychiatr Serv 1998; 49(12): 1537–9
Recognition of chronic pain in elderly patients [editorial]. Trauma 2001; 43(3): 1–3, 6
Rainsford KD, Schweitzer A, Brune K. Autoradiographic and biochemical observations on the distribution of non-steroid anti-inflammatory drugs. Arch Int Pharmacodyn Ther 1981; 250: 180–94
Gabriel SE, Jaakkimainen L, Bombardier C. Risk for serious gastrointestinal complications related to use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Ann Intern Med 1991; 115: 787–96
Henry D, Lim LL, Garcia Rodriguez LA, et al. Variability in risk of gastrointestinal complications with individual nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: results of a collaborative meta-analysis. BMJ 1996 Jun; 312: 1563–6
Shimp LA. Safety issues in the pharmacologic management of chronic pain in the elderly. Pharmacotherapy 1998; 18(6): 1313–22
AGS Panel on Chronic Pain in Older Persons. The management of chronic pain in older persons. Geriatrics 1998 Oct; 53Suppl. 3: S8–S24
Brune K, Beyer A, Schäfer M. Schmerz [in german]. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2001
Lapane KL, Spooner JJ, Mucha L, et al. Effect of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug use on the rate of gastrointestinal hospitalizations among people living in long-term care. J Am Geriatr Soc 2001; 49: 577–84
Langman MJS, Weil J, Wainwright P, et al. Risks of bleeding peptic ulcer associated with individual non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Lancet 1994; 343: 1075–8
Andrade SE, Martinez C, Walker AM. Comparative safety evaluation of non-narcotic analgesics. J Clin Epidemiol 1998 Dec; 51(12): 1357–65
Silverstein FE, Graham DY, Senior JR, et al. Misoprostol reduces serious gastrointestinal complications in patients with rheumatoid arthritis receiving non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Ann Intern Med 1995; 123: 241–9
Workman BS. Management of chronic pain in older people. Aust J Hosp Pharm 1998; 28(5): 361–7
Hawkey CJ, Karrasch JA, Szczepanski L, et al. Omeprazole compared with misoprostol for ulcers associated with nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs. N Engl J Med 1998; 338: 727–34
Chan FKL, Hung LCT, Suen BY, et al. Celecoxib versus diclofenac and omeprozole in reducing the risk of recurrent ulcer bleeding in patients with arthritis. N Engl J Med 2002 Dec; 347: 2104–10
Meyer UA. Metabolic interaction of the proton pump inhibitors lansoprazole, omeprazole and pantoprazole with other drugs. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 1996; 8Suppl. 1: S21–5
Chawla PS, Kochar MS. Effect of pain and nonsteroidal analgesics on blood pressure. WMJ 1999 Sep–Oct; 98(6): 22–25
Johnson AG, Nguyen TV, Day RO. Do nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs affect blood pressure? A metaanalysis. Ann Intern Med 1994; 121: 289–300
Hansson L, Zanchetti A, Carruthers SG, et al. Effects of ontensive blood-pressure lowering and low-dose aspirin in patients with hypertension: pricipal results of the Hypertension Optimal Treatment (HOT) randomised trial. Lancet 1998 Jun 13; 351(9118): 1755–62
UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group. Tight blood pressure control and risk of macrovascular and microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes: UKPDS 38. BMJ 1998; 317: 703–13
Griffin MR, Yared A, Ray WA. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and acute renal failure in elderly persons. Am J Epidemiol 2000 Mar; 151: 488–96
Epstein M. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and the continuum of renal dysfunction. J Hypertens 2002 Sep; 20Suppl. 6: S17–23
Perneger TV, Whelton PK, Klag MJ. Risk of kidney failure associated with the use of acetaminophen, aspirin, and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs. N Engl J Med 1994; 331: 1675–9
Fored MC, Ejerblad E, Lindblad P, et al. Acetaminophen, aspirin and chronic renal failure. N Engl J Med 2001; 345: 1801–8
Brater DC. Anti-inflammatory agents and renal function. Semin Arthritis Rheum 2002 Dec; 32 (3 Suppl. 1): 33–42
Furst DE. Are there differences among nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs? Comparing acetylated salicylates, nonacetylated salicylates, and nonacetylated nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs. Arthritis Rheum 1994; 37: 1–9
Rowbotham MC. Topical analgesic agents. In: Fields HL, Liebeskind JC, editors. Pharmacological approaches to the treatment of chronic pain: new concepts and critical issues. Seattle (WA): IASP Press, 1994: 211–27
Grahame R. Transdermal non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents. Br J Clin Pract 1995 Jan–Feb; 49(1): 33–5
Vaile JH, Davis P. Topical NSAIDs for musculoskeletal conditions: a review of the literature. Drugs 1998; 56: 783–99
Grace D, Rogers J, Skeith K, et al. Topical diclofenac versus placebo: a double blind, randomized clinical trial in patients with osteoarthritis of the knee. J Rheumatol 1999; 26(12): 2659–63
Airaksinen L, Venalainen J, Pietilainen T, et al. Ketoprofen 2.5% gel versus placebo gel in the treatment of acute soft tissue injuries. J Clin Pharm Ther Toxicol 1993; 31: 561–3
Hawkey CJ. COX-2 Inhibitors. Lancet 1999; 353: 307–14
Chou CT, Tsai YY. A double-blind, randomized, controlled parallel group study evaluating the efficacy and safety of acemetacin for the management of osteoarthritis. Int J Clin Pharmacol Res 2002; 22(1): 1–6
Willburger RE, Wittenberg RH, Schmidt K, et al. Antiinflammatory effect of tepoxalin. Acta Orthop Scand 1998; 69(3): 295–300
Van Hecken A, Schwartz JI, Depré M, et al. Comparative inhibitory activity of rofecoxib, meloxicam, diclofenac, ibuprofen and naproxen on COX-2 versus COX-1 in healthy volunteers. J Clin Pharmacol 2000; 40: 1109–20
Celebrex® [prescribing information]. Karlsruhe [in German]: Pfizer, 2002
Silverstein FE, Faich G, Goldstein JL, et al. Gastrointestinal toxicity with celecoxib vs nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. JAMA 2000 Sep; 284(10): 1247–55
Epstein M. Cardiovascular and renal effects of COX-2 specific inhibitors: recent insights and evolving clinical implications. Am J Ther 2001 Mar–Apr; 8(2): 81–3
Arzneimittelkommission der deutschen Ärzteschaft: Zur Sicherheit von COX-2-Inhibitoren Deutsches Ärzteblatt 99, Ausgabe 22 vom 31.05.2002, Scite A-1535/B-1308/C-1223
Deeks JJ, Smith LA, Bradley MD. Efficacy, tolerability, and upper gastrointestinal safety of celecoxib for treatment of osteoarthritis and reheumatoid arthritis: systematic review of randomised controlled trials. BMJ 2002 Sep; 325: 619–23
Depré M, Ehrich E, Van Hecken A, et al. Pharmacokinetics, COX-2 specifity, and tolerabilityof supratherapeutic doses of rofecoxib in humans. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2000; 56: 167–74
Truitt KE, Sperling RS, Ettinger WH, et al. A multicenter, randomized, controlled trial to evaluate the safety profile, tolerability, and efficacy of rofecoxib in advanced elderly patients with osteoarthritis. Aging Clin Exp Res 2001; 13: 112–21
Cannon GW, Caldwell JR, Holt P, et al. Rofecoxib, a specific inhibitor of cyclooxygenase 2with clinical efficacy comparable with that of diclofenac sodium. Arthritis Rheum 2000 May; 43(5): 978–87
Mamdani M, Rochon PA, Juurlink DN, et al. Observational study of upper gastrointestinal haemorrhage in elderly patients given selective cyclo-oxygenase-2 inhibitors or conventional non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. BMJ 2002 Sep; 325: 624–7
FitzGerald GA, Cheng Y, Austin S. COX-2 inhibitors and the cardiovascular system. Clin Exp Rheumatol 2001; 19Suppl. 25: S31–6
Ray WA, Stein CM, Daugherty JR, et al. COX-2 selective non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and risk of serious coronary heart disease. Lancet 2002 Oct; 360: 1071–3
White WB, Kent J, Taylor A, et al. Effects of celecoxib on ambulatory blood pressure in hypertensive patients on ACE inhibitors. Hypertension 2002; 39: 929–34
Brater CD, Harris C, Redfern JS. Renal effects of COX-2-selective inhibitors. Am J Nephrol 2001; 21: 1–15
Zhao SZ, Reynolds MW, Lefkowith JB, et al. A comparison of renal-related adverse drug reactions between rofecoxib and celecoxib based on the World Health Organisation/Uppsala Monitoring Centre safety database. Clin Ther 2001; 23: 1478–91
Catella-Lawson F, McAdam B, Morrison BW. Effects of specific inhibition of cyclooxygenase-2 on sodium balance, hemodynamics and vasoactive eicosanoids. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1999; 289: 735–41
Swan SK, Rudy DW, Lasseter KC, et al. Effect of cyclooxygenase-2 inhibition on renal function in elderly persons receiving a low-salt diet. Ann Intern Med 2000; 133: 1–9
Cheer SM, Goa KL. Parecoxib (parecoxib sodium). Drugs 2001; 61(8): 1133–41
Daniels SE, Grossmann EH, Kuss ME, et al. A double-blind, randomised comparison of intramusculary and intravenuosly administered parecoxib sodium versus ketorolac and placebo in a post-oral surgery pain model. Clin Ther 2001; 23(7): 1018–31
Grimm V, Rakoski J, Ring J. Urticaria and angioedema induced by COX-2 inhibitors. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2002; 109(2): 370–4
Breidung R. Schmerztherapie. Stuttgart: Aesopus-Verlag, 2002
Bradly JD, Brandt KD, Katz BP, et al. Comparison of an antiinflammatory dose of ibuprofen and acetaminophen in the treatment of patients with osteoarthritis in the knee. N Engl J Med 1991; 325: 87–91
Courtney P, Doherty M. Key questions concerning paracetamol and NSAIDs for osteoarthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2002; 61(9): 767–73
Rumore MM, Blaiklock RG. Influence of age-dependent pharmacokinetics and metabolism on acetaminophen hepatotoxicity. J Pharm Sci 1992; 81: 203–7
Gloth FM. Pain management in older adults: prevention and treatment. J Am Geriatr Soc 2001; 49: 188–99
Wynne HA, Cope LH, Herd B, et al. The association of age and frailty with paracetamol conjugation in man. Age Ageing 1990; 19(6): 419–24
Whitcomb DC, Block GD. Association of acetaminophen hepatotoxicity with fasting and alcohol use. JAMA 1994; 272: 1845–50
Dart RC, Kuffner EK, Rumack BH. Treatment of pain or fever with paracetamol (acetaminophen) in the alcoholic patient: a systematic review. Am J Ther 2000; 7(2): 123–34
Moynihan R. FDA fails to reduce accessibility of paracetamol despite 450 deaths a year. BMJ 2002; 325(7366): 678
Van den Bemt PMLA, Geven LM, Kuitert NA. The potential interaction between oral anticoagulants and acetaminophen in everyday practice. Pharm World Sci 2002; 24(5): 201–4
De Craen AJM, Di Giulio G, Lampe-Schoenmaeckers AJEM, et al. Analgesic efficacy and safety of paracetamol-codeine combinations versus paracetamol alone: a systematic review. BMJ 1996; 313: 325–9
Kjaersgaard-Andersen P, Nafei A, Skov O. Codeine plus paracetamol in longer-term treatment of chronic pain due to osteoarthritis of the hip: a randomised, double-blind, multi-centre study. Pain 1990; 43(3): 309–18
Pincus T, Swearingen C, Cummins P, et al. Preference for nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs versus acetaminophen and concomittant use of both types of drugs in patients with osteoarthritis. J Rheumatol 2000; 27(4): 1020–7
Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences. Benefit-risk balance for marketed drugs: evaluating safety signals. Geneva: CIOMS Working Group IV, 1998
Hedenmalm K, Spigset O. Agranulocytosis and other blood dyscrasias associated with dipyrone (metamizole). Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2002 Jul; 58(4): 265–74
International Agranulocytosis and Aplastic Anemia Study. Risks of agranulocytosis and aplastic anemia: a first report of their relation to drug use with special reference to analgesics. JAMA 1986; 256: 1749–57
Martinez Martin P, Raffaelli Jr E, Titus F, et al. Efficacy and safety of metamizol vs acetylsalicylic acid in patients with moderate episodic tension-type headache: a randomized, double-blind, placebo- and active-controlled, multicentre study. Cephalgia 2001; 21(5): 604–10
Zylber-Katz E, Granit L, Stessmann J, et al. Effect on age on the pharmacokinetics of dipyrone. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1989; 36: 513–6
Novalgin® [prescribing information]. Frankfurt/Main: Avenus Pharma, 2000
Radbruch L, Grond S, Lehmann KA. A risk-benefit assessment of tramadol in the management of pain. Drug Saf 1996; 15(1): 8–29
Mullican WS, Lacy JR. Tramadol/acetaminophen combination tablets and codein/acetaminophen combination capsules for the management of chronic pain: a comparative trial. Clin Ther 2001; 23: 1429–45
Raffa RB. Pharmacology of oral combination analgesics; rational therapy for pain. J Clin Pharmacol Ther 2001; 26: 257–64
Cicero TJ, Adams EH, Geller A, et al. A postmarketing surveillance program to monitor Ultram (tramadol hydrochloride) abuse in the United States. Drug Alcohol Depend 1999; 57: 7–22
Schnitzer TJ, Gray WI, Paster RZ, et al. Efficacy of tramadol in treatment of chronic low back pain. J Rheumatol 2000; 27: 772–8
Fleischmann RM, Caldwell JR, Roth SH, et al. Tramadol for the treatment of joint pain associated with osteoarthritis: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Curr Ther Res Clin Exp 2001; 62: 113–28
Harati Y, Gooch C, Swenson M, et al. Maintenance of long-term effectiveness of tramadol in treatment of the pain of diabetic neuropathy. J Diabetes Complications 2000; 14: 65–70
Moulin D. Tramadol for the treatment of the pain in diabetic neuropathy [letter]. Neurology 1999; 52: 1301
Tramai® [prescribing information]. Aachen: Grünenthal GmbH, 2003
Caldwell JR, Hale ME, Boyd RE, et al. Treatment of osteoarthritis with controlled release oxycodone or fixed combination oxycodone plus acetaminophen added to nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs: a double-blind, randomized, multicenter, placebo controlled trial. J Rheumatol 1999; 26: 862–9
Parris W, Johnson B, Croghan M, et al. The use of controlled-release oxycodone for the treatment of chronic cancer pain: a randomized, double-blind study. J Pain Symptom Manage 1998; 16: 205–11
Heiskanen T, Kalso E. Controlled-release oxycodone and morphine in cancer related pain. Pain 1997; 73: 37–45
Ytterberg S, Mahowald M, Woods S. Codeine and oxycodone use in patients with chronic rheumatic disease pain. Arthritis Rheum 1998; 41: 1603–11
Peloso P, Bellamy N, Bensen W, et al. Double blind randomized placebo control trial of controlled release codeine in the treatment of osteoarthritis of the hip or knee. J Rheumatol 2000; 27: 764–71
Brennscheidt U, Sciler KU, Thomann P. Pharmacokinetics of nortilidine and naloxone after administration of tilidine/naloxone solution or tilidine/naloxone sustained release tablets. Arzneimittel Forschung 2000; 50: 1015–22
Hajda JP, Jahnchen E, Oie S, et al. Sequential first-pass metabolism of nortilidine: the active metabolite of the synthetic opioid drug tilidine. J Clin Pharmacol 2002; 42: 1257–61
Wehrmann T, Rausch D, Sciler KU, et al. Tilidine does not affect human sphincter of Oddi motility: a randomized, controlled study. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1997; 11: 987–92
Regenthal R, Kruger M, Richter M, et al. Poisoning with tilidine and naloxone: toxicokinetic and clinical observations. Hum Exp Toxicol 1998; 17: 593–7
Wörz R, Wörz E. Long-term treatment of chronic pain with tilidine-naloxone: an analysis of 50 patients with chronic pain conditions of non-malignant origin [in German]. Fortschr Med 1995; 113: 388–92
Seiler KU, Jahnchen E, Trenk D, et al. Pharmacokinetics of tilidine in terminal renal failure. J Clin Pharmacol 2001; 41: 79–84
Bellville JW, Forrest WH, Miller E, et al. Influence of age on pain relief from analgesics: a study of postoperative patients. JAMA 1971; 271: 1835–941
Scott JC, Stanski DR. Decreased fentanyl and alfentanil dose requirements with age: a simultaneous pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic evaluation. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1987; 240: 159–65
Kaiko RF. Age and morphine analgesia in cancer patients with postoperative pain. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1980; 28: 823–6
Weinberg DS, Inturrisu CE, Reidenberg B, et al. Sublingual absorption of selected opioid analgesics. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1988; 43: 335–42
Tegeder I, Lotsch J, Geisslinger G. Pharmacokinetics of opioids in liver disease. Clin Pharmacokinet 1999; 37: 17–40
Stanski DR, Greenblatt DJ, Lowenstein E. Kinetics of intravenous and intramuscular morphine. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1978; 24: 52–9
Kaiko RF, Wallenstein SL, Rogers AG, et al. Narcotics in the elderly. Med Clin North Am 1982; 66: 1079–89
Owen JA, Sitar DS, Berger L, et al. Age-related morphine kinetics. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1983; 34: 364–8
Baillie SP, Bateman DN, Coates PE, et al. Age and the pharmacokinetics of morphine. Age Ageing 1989; 18: 258–62
Chan K, Kendall MJ, Mitchard J, et al. The effect of aging on plasma pethidine concentration. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1975; 2: 297–302
Holmberg L, Odar-cederlof I, Boreus LO, et al. Comparative disposition of pethidine and norpethidine in the old and young patients. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1982; 22: 175–9
Herman RJ, McAllister CD, Branch RA, et al. Effects of age on meperidine disposition. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1985; 37: 19–24
Odar-Cederlof I, Boreus LO, Bondesson U, et al. Comparison of renal excretion of meperidine and its metabolites in old and young patients. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1985; 28: 171–5
Hanlon JT, O’Brien JG. The pharmacological management of the elderly patient with terminal cancer pain. J Ger Drug Ther 1989; 3: 5–30
Allan L, Hays H, Jensen NH, et al. Randomised crossover trial of transdermal fentanyl and sustained release oral morphine for treating chronic non-cancer pain. BMJ 2001; 322: 1154–8
Payne R, Mathias S, Pasta D, et al. Quality of life and cancer pain: satisfaction and side effects with transdermal fentanyl versus oral morphine. J Clin Oncol 1998; 16: 1588–93
Ahmedzai S, Brooks D. Transdermal fentanyl versus sustained-release oral morphine in cancer pain: preference, efficacy, and quality of life: The TTS-Fentanyl Comparative Trial Group. J Pain Symptom Manage 1997; 13: 254–61
Fine PG. Opioid analgesic drugs in older people. Clin Geriatr Med 2001; 17: 479–87
Holdsworth MT, Forman WB, Killilea TA, et al. Transdermal fentanyl disposition in elderly subjects. Gerontology 1994; 40: 32–7
Nugent M, Davis C, Brooks D, et al. Long-term observations of patients receiving transdermal fentanyl after a randomized trial. J Pain Symptom Manage 2001; 21: 385–91
Sloan PA, Moulin DE, Hays H. A clinical evaluation of transdermal therapeutic system fentanyl for the treatment of cancer pain. J Pain Symptom Manage 1998; 16: 102–11
Thompson JP, Bower S, Liddle AM, et al. Perioperative pharmacokinetics of transdermal fentanyl in elderly and young adult patients. Br J Anaesth 1998; 81: 152–4
Dellemijn PL, van Duijn H, Vanneste J. Prolonged treatment with transdermal fentanyl in neuropathic pain. J Pain Symptom Manage 1998; 16: 220–9
Lindena G, Arnau H, Liefhold J. Hydromorphone: review of pharmacological properties and therapeutic efficacy with special regard to a controlled release preparation [in German]. Schmerz 1998; 12: 195–204
Quigley C, Wiffen P. A systematic review of hydromorphone in acute and chronic pain. J Pain Symptom Manage 2003; 25: 169–78
Coursey CE. The psychomimetic side effects of pentazocine. Drug Intell Clin Pharm 1978; 12: 341–6
Li Wan Po A, Zhang WY. Systemic overview of co-proxamol to assess analgesic effects of addition of dextropropoxyphene to paracetamol. BMJ 1997; 315: 1565–71
Gray SL, Lai KV, Larson EB. Drug-induced cognition disorders in the elderly: incidence, prevention, and management. Drug Saf 1999; 21: 101–22
Weiner D, Hanlon JT, Studenski S. CNS drug-related fall liability in community-dwelling elderly. Gerontology 1998; 44: 217–21
Derby S, Portenoy RK. Assessment and management of opioid-induced constipation. In: Portenoy RK, Bruera E, editors. Topics in palliative care. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997: 95–112
Walsh TD. Prevention of opioid side effects. J Pain Symptom Manage 1999; 5: 363–7
Leipzig RM, Cumming RG, Tinetti ME. Drugs and falls in older people: a systematic review and meta-analysis: II. cardiac and analgesic drugs. J Am Geriatr Soc 1999; 47: 40–50
Egbert AM. Postoperative pain management in the frail elderly. Clin Geriatr Med 1996; 12: 583–99
McQuay HJ, Carroll D, Glynn CJ. Low dose amitriptyline in the treatment of chronic pain. Anaesthesia 1992; 47: 646–52
Leo RJ, Singh A. Pain management in the elderly: use of psychopharmacologic agents. Ann Long-Term Care 2002; 10(2): 37–45
Bryson HM, Wilde MI. Amitriptyline: a review of its pharmacologic properties and therapeutic use in chronic pain states. Drugs Aging 1996; 8(6): 459–76
Lindsay PG, Olsen RB. Maprotiline in pain-depression. J Clin Psychiatry 1985 Jun; 46(6): 226–8
Ansari A. The efficacy of newer antidepressants in the treatment of chronic pain: a review of the current literature. Harv Rev Psychiatry 2000; 7: 257–77
Loldrup D, Langemark M, Hansen HJ, etal. Clomipramine and mianserin in chronic idiopathic pain syndrome. Psychopharmacology 1989; 99(1): 1–7
Yosselson-Superstine S, Lipman AG, Sanders SH. Adjunctive antianxiety agents in the management of chronic pain. Isr J Med Sci 1985; 21: 113–7
Baron R, Wasner G, Lindner V. Optimal treatment of phantom limb pain in the elderly. Drugs Aging 1998 May; 12(5): 361–76
Jung AC, Staiger T, Sullivan M. The efficacy of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors for the management of chronic pain. J Gen Intern Med 1997; 12(6): 384–9
Sindrup SH, Bjerre U, Dejgaard A, et al. The selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor paroxetine is effective in the treatment of diabetic neuropathy symptoms. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1992 Nov; 52(5): 547–52
Sindrup SH, Gram LF, Brosen K, et al. The selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor citalopram relieves the syptoms of diabetic neuropathy. Pain 1990 Aug; 42(2): 135–44
Sindrup SH, Bach FW, Madsen C, et al. Venlafaxine versus imipramine in painful polyneuropathy: a randomized controlled trial. Neurology 2003 Apr 22; 60(8): 1284–9
Chiu HF. Antidepressants in the elderly. Int J Clin Pract 1997; 51(6): 369–74
McQuay H, Carroll D, Jadad AR, et al. Anticonvulsant drugs for management of pain: a systematic review. BMJ 1995 Oct 21; 311(7012): 1047–52
Rice ASC, Maton S. Gabapentin in postherpetic neuralgia: a randomised, double blind, placebo controlled study. Pain 2001; 94: 215–24
Backonja M, Beydoun A, Edwards KR, et al. Gabapentin for the symptomatic treatment of painful neuropathy in patients with diabetes mellitus: a randomised controlled trial. JAMA 1998; 280: 1831–6
Zeyfang A, Nikolaus T. Activities of daily living (ADL) are more impaired among geriatric diabetic patients compared to non diabetic subjects [abstract]. Diabetologia 2002, 45 S1 A 304
Khan O. Gabapentin relieves trigeminal neuralgia in multiple sclerosis patients. Neurology 1998; 51: 611–4
Happe S, Klösch G, Saletu B, et al. Treatment of restless legs syndrome (RLS) with gabapentin. Neurology 2001; 57: 1717–9
Bone M, Buggy D, Critchley R, et al. Gabapentin monotherapy in postamputation limb and stump pain: a randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over study [abstract]. Eur J Anaesth 2001; 18: S2/A454
Schachter SC, Sauter MK. Treatment of central pain with gabapentin: case reports. J Epilepsy 1996; 9: 223–6
Backonja M, Glanzmann RL. Gabapentin dosing for neuropathic pain: evidence from randomized, placebo-controlled trials. Clin Ther 2003 Jan; 25(1): 81–104
Laughlin TM, Tram KV, Wilcox GL. Comparison of antiepileptic drugs tiagabine, lamotrigine, and gabapentin in mouse models of acute, prolonged and chronic nociception. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2002 Sep; 302(3): 1168–75
Chong MS, Libretto SE. The rationale and use of topiramate for treating neuropathiy pain. Clin J Pain 2003 Jan–Feb; 19(1): 59–68
Szallasi A. Vanilloid receptor ligands: hopes and realities for the future. Drugs Aging 2001; 18(8): 561–73
Watson CP, Evans PJ, Watt VR. Post-herpetic neuralgia and topical capsaicin. Pain 1988; 33: 333–40
Peikert A, Henrich M, Ochs G. Topical 0.025% capsaicin in chronic post-herpetic neuralgia: efficacy, predictors of response and long-term course. J Neurol 1991; 238(8): 452–6
McQuay H, Moore A. An evidence based resource for pain relief: topical capsaicin. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998: 249–51
Watson CPN. Topical Capsaicin as an adjuvant analgesic. J Pain Symptom Manag 1994; 9: 425–33
Zhang WX, Li Wan Po A. The effectiveness of topically applied capsaicin: a metaanalysis. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1999; 46: 517–22
Kastrup J, Bach FW, Petersen P, et al. Lidocaine treatment of painful diabetic neuropathy and endogenous opioid peptides in plasma. Clin J Pain 1989; 5(3): 239–44
Dejgard A, Petersen P, Castrup J. Mexiletine for treatment of chronic painful diabetic neuropathy. Lancet 1988; I: 9–11
Felsby S, Nielsen J, Arendt-Nielsen L, et al. NMDA receptor blockade in chronic neuropathic pain: a comparison of ketamine and magnesium chloride. Pain 1995; 64: 283–91
Nikolajsen L, Gottrup H, Kristensen AGD, et al. Memantine (a N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor Antagonist) in the treatment of neuropathic pain after amputation or surgery: a randomized, double-blinded, cross-over study. Anesth Analg 2000; 91: 960–6
Nikolajsen L, Hansen CL, Nielsen J, et al. The effect of ketamine on phantom pain: a central neuropathic disorder maintained by peripheral input. Pain 1996; 67(1): 69–77
Sang CN, Booher S, Gilron I, et al. Dextromethorphan and memantine in painful diabetic neuropathy and postherpetic neuralgia: efficacy and dose-response trials. Anesthesiology 2002 May; 96(5): 1053–61
Amin P, Sturrock ND. A pilot study of the beneficial effects of amantadine in the treatment of painful diabetic peripheral neuropathy. Diabet Med 2003 Feb; 20(2): 114–8
Gennari C. Analgesic effect of calcitonin in osteoporosis. Bone 2002 May; 30(5 Suppl.): 67S–70S
Silverman SL, Azria M. The analgesic role of calcitonin following osteoporotic fracture. Osteoporos Int 2002 Nov; 13(11): 858–67
Maksymowych WP. Managing acute osteoporotic vertebral fractures with calcitonin. Can Fam Physician 1998; 44: 2160–6
Jaeger H, Maier C. Calcitonin in phantom limb pain: a double-blind study. Pain 1992; 48: 21–7
Martinez MJ, Roque M, Alonso-Coello P, et al. Calcitonin for metastatic bone pain. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2003; 3: CD003223
Hortobagyi GN, Theriault RL, Lester P, et al. Pamidronate in reducing skeletal complications in patients with breast cancer and lytic bone metastases. N Engl J Med 1996; 335: 1785–91
Berenson JR, Lichtenstein A, Porter A, et al. Efficacy of pamidronate in reducing skeletal events in patients with multiple myeloma. N Engl J Med 1996; 334: 488–93
Nevitt MC, Thompson DE, Black DM, et al. Effect of alendronate on limited-activity days and bed-disability days caused by back pain in postmenopausal women with existing vertebral fractures. Arch Intern Med Jan 2000; 160(10): 77–85
Freidman DM, Moore ME. The efficacy of intraarticular steroids in osteoarthritis: a double-blind study. J Rheumatol 1980; 7: 850–6
Altman RD, Hochberg MC, Moskowitz RW, et al. Recommendations for the medical management of osteoarthritis of the hip and knee: 2000 update. Arthritis Rheum 2000; 43: 1905–15
Hollander JL. Intrasynovial corticosteroid therapy in arthritis. Md State Med J 1970; 19: 62–6
Khojainova N, Santiago-Palma J, Kornick C, et al. Olanzapine in the management of cancer pain. J Pain Symptom Manage 2002; 23(4): 346–50
Rumore MM, Schlichting DA. Clinical efficacy of antihistaminics as analgesics. Pain 1986; 25: 7–22
Campbell FA, Tramèr MR, Carroll D, et al. Are cannabinoids an effective and safe treatment option for the management of pain? A qualitative systematic review. BMJ 2001; 323(7303): 13–6
Acknowledgements
No sources of funding were used to assist in the preparation of this manuscript. The authors have no conflicts of interest that are directly relevant to the content of this manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Nikolaus, T., Zeyfang, A. Pharmacological Treatments for Persistent Non-Malignant Pain in Older Persons. Drugs Aging 21, 19–41 (2004). https://doi.org/10.2165/00002512-200421010-00003
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00002512-200421010-00003