Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Effect of Reproductive Hormones and Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators on Mood during Menopause

  • Leading Article
  • Published:
Drugs & Aging Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Periods of intense hormonal fluctuations have been associated with heightened prevalence and exacerbation of underlying psychiatric illness, particularly the occurrence of premenstrual dysphoria, puerperal depression and depressive symptoms during perimenopause. It has been speculated that sex steroids such as estrogens, progestogens, testosterone and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) exert a significant modulation of brain functioning, possibly through interactions with various neurotransmitter systems. It is therefore intuitive that abrupt alterations of these hormones would interfere with mood and behaviour. On the other hand, accumulating data suggest that hormonal interventions may also promote relief or even remission of depressive symptoms, as already demonstrated in studies with patients experiencing postpartum depression and perimenopausal depressive disorders. The extent to which perimenopause, alone, may increase the risk for depression is unclear. However, existing data strongly suggest that some women are particularly vulnerable to developing significant physical and psychological disturbances when entering perimenopause.

This article reviews the effect of sex hormones and selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) on mood among peri- and postmenopausal women. There are preliminary, though promising, data on the use of estradiol (particularly trans-dermal estradiol) to alleviate depression during perimenopause, use of a combination of estrogens and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors for depression during the postmenopausal period, and the use of testosterone to improve psychological well-being and increase libido among women with induced menopause. Further studies would help to better delineate the usage of hormones as an antidepressant strategy (monotherapy or augmenting treatment) for peri- and postmenopausal women.

A brief review of some nonhormonal interventions for the treatment of menopause-related symptoms that may significantly affect a woman’s quality of life is also presented. There are some preliminary data suggesting the efficacy of antidepressants for the treatment of hot flushes; existing data on diet supplements and herbal products have shown more mixed results.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Table I

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Young E, Korszun A. Women, stress, and depression: sex differences in hypothalamic pituitary-adrenal axis regulation. In: Leibenluft E, editor. Gender differences in mood and anxiety disorders. Washington (DC): American Psychiatric Press, 1999; 31–52

    Google Scholar 

  2. Leibenluft E. Foreword, in gender differences in mood and anxiety disorders. In: Leibenluft E, editor. Washington (DC): American Psychiatric Press, 1999: XIII–XXII

  3. Kessler RC, McGonagle KA, Zhao S, et al. Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States: results from the National Comorbidity Survey. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1994; 51(1): 8–19

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Born L, Steiner M. The relationship between menarche and depression in adolescence. CNS Spectrums 2001; 6(2): 126–38

    Google Scholar 

  5. Soares CN, Cohen LS, Otto M, et al. Characteristics of women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) who did or did not report history of depression: a preliminary report from the Harvard Study of Moods and Cycles. J Womens Health Gend Based Med 2001; 10(9): 873–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Kendell RE, McGuire RJ, Connor Y, et al. Mood changes in the first three weeks after childbirth. J Affect Disord 1981; 3(4): 317–26

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Harlow BL, Cohen LS, Otto MW, et al. Prevalence and predictors of depressive symptoms in older premenopausal women: the Harvard Study of Moods and Cycles. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1999; 56(5): 418–24

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Harlow BL, Wise LA, Otto MW, et al. Lifetime history of depression and its influence on reproductive endocrine and menstrual cycle markers associated with the perimenopause — The Harvard Study of Moods and Cycles. Arch Gen Psychiatry. In press

  9. Smith RN, Studd JW, Zamblera D, et al. A randomised comparison over 8 months of 100 micrograms and 200 micro-grams twice weekly doses of transdermal oestradiol in the treatment of severe premenstrual syndrome. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1995; 102(6): 475–84

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Gregoire AJ, Kumar R, Everitt B, et al. Transdermal oestrogen for treatment of severe postnatal depression. Lancet 1996; 347(9006): 930–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Ahokas A, Kaukoranta J, Wahlbeck K, et al. Estrogen deficiency in severe postpartum depression: successful treatment with sublingual physiologic 17beta-estradiol: a preliminary study. J Clin Psychiatry 2001; 62(5): 332–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Schmidt PJ, Nieman L, Danaceau MA, et al. Estrogen replacement in perimenopause-related depression: a preliminary report. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000; 183(2): 414–20

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Soares CN, Almeida OP, Joffe H, et al. Efficacy of estradiol for the treatment of depressive disorders in perimenopausal women: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2001; 58(6): 529–34

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Shifren JL, Braunstein GD, Simon JA, et al. Transdermal testosterone treatment in women with impaired sexual function after oophorectomy. N Engl J Med 2000; 343(10): 682–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Teede H, Burger H. The menopausal transition. In: Studd J, editor. The management of menopause — annual book review. London: Parthenon, 1998: 1–12

    Google Scholar 

  16. NAMS. Clinical challenges of perimenopause: consensus opinion of The North American Menopause Society. Menopause 2000; 7(1): 5–13

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Soares CN, Cohen LS. Mood disturbance, perimenopause, and hormone variability. Sao Paulo Med 2001; 119(2): 78–83

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Shifren JL, Schiff I. The aging ovary. J Womens Health Gend Based Med 2000; 9 Suppl. 1: S3–7

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Adashi EY. The climacteric ovary as a functional gonadotropin-driven androgen-producing gland. Fertil Steril 1994; 62(1): 20–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Judd HL. Hormonal dynamics associated with the menopause. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1976; 19(4): 775–88

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Freedman RR. Hot flashes revisited. Menopause 2000; 7(1): 3–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Kronenberg F. Hot flashes: phenomenology, quality of life, and search for treatment options. Exp Gerontol 1994; 29(3–4): 319–36

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Barton D, Loprinzi C, Wahner-Roedler D. Hot flashes: aetiology and management. Drugs Aging 2001; 18(8): 597–606

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Campbell S, Whitehead M. Oestrogen therapy and the menopausal syndrome. Clin Obstet Gynaecol 1977; 4(1): 31–47

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Haas S, Walsh B, Evans S, et al. The effect of transdermal estradiol on hormone and metabolic dynamics over a six-week period. Obstet Gynecol 1988; 71(5): 671–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Burt VK, Altshuler LL, Rasgon N. Depressive symptoms in the perimenopause: prevalence, assessment, and guidelines for treatment. Harv Rev Psychiatry 1998; 6(3): 121–32

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Soares C, Cohen L. The perimenopause and mood disturbance. CNS Spectrums 2001; 6(2): 167–74

    Google Scholar 

  28. Bungay GT, Vessey MP, McPherson CK. Study of symptoms in middle life with special reference to the menopause. BMJ 1980; 281(6234): 181–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Jaszmann L, Van Lith ND, Zaat JC. The age of menopause in the Netherlands: the statistical analysis of a survey. Int J Fertil 1969; 14(2): 106–17

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Novaes C, Almeida O, de Melo N. Mental health among perimenopausal women attending a menopause clinic: possible association with premenstrual clinic? Climacteric 1998; 1: 264–70

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Hay AG, Bancroft J, Johnstone EC. Affective symptoms in women attending a menopause clinic. Br J Psychiatry 1994; 164(4): 513–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Schmidt PJ, Roca CA, Bloch M, et al. The perimenopause and affective disorders. Semin Reprod Endocrinol 1997; 15(1): 91–100

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Avis NE, McKinlay SM. The Massachusetts Women’s Health Study: an epidemiologic investigation of the menopause. J Am Med Womens Assoc 1995; 50(2): 45–9, 63

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Kaufert PA, Gilbert P, Tate R. The Manitoba Project: a re-examination of the link between menopause and depression. Maturitas 1992; 14(2): 143–55

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Joffe H, Hennen J, Soares CN, et al. Hot flushes associated with depression in perimenopausal women seeking primary care. Menopause. In Press

  36. Schmidt PJ, Rubinow DR. Menopause-related affective disorders: a justification for further study. Am J Psychiatry 1991; 148(7): 844–52

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Burger HG, Dudley EC, Hopper JL, et al. The endocrinology of the menopausal transition: a cross-sectional study of a population-based sample. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1995; 80(12): 3537–45

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Joffe H, Cohen LS. Estrogen, serotonin, and mood disturbance: where is the therapeutic bridge? Biol Psychiatry 1998; 44(9): 798–811

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Maggi A, Perez J. Role of female gonadal hormones in the CNS: clinical and experimental aspects. Life Sci 1985; 37(10): 893–906

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Genazzani AR, Lucchesi A, Stomati M, et al. Effects of sex steroid hormones on the neuroendocrine system. Eur J Con-tracept Reprod Health Care 1997; 2(1): 63–9

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Silva I, Mor G, Naftolin F. Estrogen and the aging brain. Maturitas 2001; 38(1): 95–100; discussion 100–1

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Woolley CS. Effects of estrogen in the CNS. Curr Opin Neu-robiol 1999; 9(3): 349–54

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. McEwen BS, Alves SE. Estrogen actions in the central nervous system. Endocr Rev 1999; 20(3): 279–307

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Stahl SM. Sex and psychopharmacology: is natural estrogen a psychotropic drug in women? Arch Gen Psychiatry 2001; 58(6): 537–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Halbreich U, Kahn LS. Role of estrogen in the aetiology and treatment of mood disorders. CNS Drugs 2001; 15(10): 797–817

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Garlow S, Musselman D, Nemeroff C. The neurochemistry of mood disorders: clinical studies. In: Charney D, Nestler E, Bunney B, editors. Neurobiology of mental illness. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999: 348–64

    Google Scholar 

  47. Holte A. Menopause, mood and hormone replacement therapy: methodological issues. Maturitas 1998; 29(1): 5–18

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Ramachandran C, Fleisher D. Transdermal delivery of drugs for the treatment of bone diseases. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2000; 42(3): 197–223

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Scott RT Jr, Ross B, Anderson C, et al. Pharmacokinetics of percutaneous estradiol: a crossover study using a gel and a transdermal system in comparison with oral micronized estradiol. Obstet Gynecol 1991; 77(5): 758–64

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Fraser I, Wang Y. New delivery systems for hormone replacement therapy. In: Studd J. The management of menopause — annual review. London: Parthenon, 1998: 101–10

    Google Scholar 

  51. Coope J, Thomson JM, Poller L. Effects of ‘natural oestrogen’ replacement therapy on menopausal symptoms and blood clotting. BMJ 1975; 4(5989): 139–43

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Strickler RC, Borth R, Cecutti A, et al. The role of oestrogen replacement in the climacteric syndrome. Psychol Med 1977; 7(4): 631–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Thompson J, Oswald I. Effect of oestrogen on the sleep, mood, and anxiety of menopausal women. BMJ 1977; 2: 1317–9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. George GC, Utian WH, Beaumont PJ, et al. Effect of exogenous oestrogens on minor psychiatric symptoms in postmeno-pausal women. S Afr Med J 1973; 47(49): 2387–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Coppen A, Bishop M, Beard R. Effects of piperazine oestrone sulphate on plasma tryptophan, oestrogens, gonadotrophins and psychological functioning in women following hysterectomy. Curr Med Res Opin 1977; 4: 29–36

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Saletu B, Brandstatter N, Metka M, et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled, hormonal, syndromal and EEG mapping studies with transdermal oestradiol therapy in menopausal depression. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1995; 122(4): 321–9

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Cohen LS, Soares CN, Poitras JR, et al. Short term use of estradiol as an antidepressant strategy for peri and postmenopausal women. 40th American College of Neuropsychopharmaco-logy Annual Meeting; 2001 Dec 9–13; Hawaii, USA

  58. Schneider LS, Small GW, Hamilton SH, et al. Estrogen replacement and response to fluoxetine in a multicenter geriatric depression trial. Fluoxetine Collaborative Study Group. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 1997; 5(2): 97–106

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Amsterdam J, Garcia-Espana F, Fawcett J, et al. Fluoxetine efficacy in menopausal women with and without estrogen replacement. J Affect Disord 1999; 55(1): 11–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Schneider LS, Small GW, Clary CM. Estrogen replacement therapy and antidepressant response to sertraline in older depressed women. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2001; 9(4): 393–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Schneider MA, Brotherton PL, Hailes J. The effect of exogenous oestrogens on depression in menopausal women. Med J Aust 1977; 2(5): 162–3

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Thompson J. Double-blind study on the effect of estrogen on sleep, anxiety and depression in perimenopausal women: preliminary results. Proc R Soc Med 1976; 69: 829–30

    Google Scholar 

  63. Coope J. Is oestrogen therapy effective in the treatment of menopausal depression? J R Coll Gen Pract 1981; 31(224): 134–40

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Rasgon NL, Altshuler LL, Fairbanks L. Estrogen-replacement therapy for depression. Am J Psychiatry 2001; 158(10): 1738

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Soares CN, Poitras JR, Cohen LS. Efficacy of citalopram as an augmenting strategy for menopausal women with “estrogen-resistant” depression. 40th American College of Neuro-psychopharmacology Annual Meeting; 2001 Dec 9–13; Hawaii, USA: 236

  66. Joffe H, Groninger H, Soares CN, et al. An open trial of mirtazapine in menopausal women with depression unresponsive to estrogen replacement therapy. J Womens Health Gend Based Med 2001; 10(10): 999–1004

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Halbreich U. Hormonal interventions with psychopharmaco-logical potential: an overview. Psychopharmacol Bull 1997; 33(2): 281–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Lawrie T, Hofmeyer G, de Jager M, et al. A double-blind randomised placebo-controlled trial of postnatal nore-thisterone enanthate: the effect of postnatal depression and serum hormones. J Obstet Gynaecol 2000; 105: 1082–90

    Google Scholar 

  69. Freeman EW, Purdy RH, Coutifaris C, et al. Anxiolytic metabolites of progesterone: correlation with mood and performance measures following oral progesterone administration to healthy female volunteers. Neuroendocrinology 1993; 58(4): 478–84

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Wihlback AC, Sundstrom-Poromaa I, Allard P, et al. Influence of postmenopausal hormone replacement therapy on platelet serotonin uptake site and serotonin 2A receptor binding. Ob-stet Gynecol 2001; 98(3): 450–7

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Freeman E, Rickels K, Sondheimer SJ, et al. Ineffectiveness of progesterone suppository treatment for premenstrual syndrome. JAMA 1990; 264(3): 349–53

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Freeman EW, Rickels K, Sondheimer SJ, et al. A double-blind trial of oral progesterone, alprazolam, and placebo in treatment of severe premenstrual syndrome. JAMA 1995; 274(1): 51–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Girdler SS, Straneva PA, Light KC, et al. Allopregnanolone levels and reactivity to mental stress in premenstrual dys-phoric disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2001; 49(9): 788–97

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Baker ER, Best RG, Manfredi RL, et al. Efficacy of progesterone vaginal suppositories in alleviation of nervous symptoms in patients with premenstrual syndrome. J Assist Reprod Genet 1995; 12(3): 205–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Magill PJ. Investigation of the efficacy of progesterone pessaries in the relief of symptoms of premenstrual syndrome, progesterone Study Group. Br J Gen Pract 1995; 45(400): 589–93

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. de Wit H, Schmitt L, Purdy R, et al. Effects of acute progesterone administration in healthy postmenopausal women and normally-cycling women. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2001; 26(7): 697–710

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Westhoff C, Wieland D, Tiezzi L. Depression in users of depo-medroxyprogesterone acetate. Contraception 1995; 51(6): 351–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Wieland S, Belluzzi J, Hawkinson JE, et al. Anxiolytic and anticonvulsant activity of a synthetic neuroactive steroid Co 3-0593. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1997; 134(1): 46–54

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Gupta N, O’Brien R, Jacobsen LJ, et al. Mood changes in adolescents using depot-medroxyprogesterone acetate for contraception: a prospective study. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol 2001; 14(2): 71–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Civic D, Scholes D, Ichikawa L, et al. Depressive symptoms in users and non-users of depot medroxyprogesterone acetate. Contraception 2000; 61(6): 385–90

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Wolf OT, Kirschbaum C. Actions of dehydroepiandrosterone and its sulfate in the central nervous system: effects on cognition and emotion in animals and humans. Brain Res Brain Res Rev 1999; 30(3): 264–88

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Rubinow DR, Schmidt PJ. Androgens, brain, and behavior. Am J Psychiatry 1996; 153(8): 974–84

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Morrison MF. Androgens in the elderly: will androgen replacement therapy improve mood, cognition, and quality of life in aging men and women. Psychopharmacol Bull 1997; 33(2): 293–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Zumoff B, Bradlow H. Sex difference in the metabolism of dehydroisoandrosterone sulfate. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1980; 51(2): 334–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Davis S. The therapeutic use of androgens in women. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 1999; 69: 177–84

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Morley JE. Androgens and aging. Maturitas 2001; 38(1): 61–71; discussion 71–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Archer J. The influence of testosterone on human aggression. Br J Psychol 1991; 82 (Pt 1): 1–28

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Christiansen K. Behavioural effects of androgen in men and women. J Endocrinol 2001; 170(1): 39–48

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Cashdan E. Hormones, sex, and status in women. Horm Behav 1995; 29(3): 354–66

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Rohr UD. The impact of testosterone imbalance on depression and women’s health. Maturitas 2002; 41 Suppl.: S25–46

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Shifren SL. Androgen deficiency in the oophorectomized woman. Fertil Steril 2002; 77 Suppl. 4: 60–2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  92. Sherwin BB, Gelfand MM. Sex steroids and affect in the surgical menopause: a double-blind, cross-over study. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1985; 10(3): 325–35

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Barrett-Connor E, von Muhlen D, Laughlin GA, et al. Endogenous levels of dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, but not other sex hormones, are associated with depressed mood in older women: the Rancho Bernardo Study. J Am Geriatr Soc 1999; 47(6): 685–91

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Yaffe K, Ettinger B, Pressman A, et al. Neuropsychiatrie function and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate in elderly women: a prospective study. Biol Psychiatry 1998; 43(9): 694–700

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Wolkowitz OM, Reus VI, Roberts E, et al. Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) treatment of depression. Biol Psychiatry 1997; 41(3): 311–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Mayeux R. Can estrogen or selective estrogen-receptor modulators preserve cognitive function in elderly women? N Engl J Med 2001; 344(16): 1242–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Genazzani AR, Bernardi F, Stomati M, et al. Raloxifene analog LY 117018 effects on central and peripheral beta-endorphin. Gynecol Endocrinol 1999; 13(4): 249–58

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Sumner BE, Grant KE, Rosie R, et al. Effects of tamoxifen on serotonin transporter and 5-hydroxytryptamine(2A) receptor binding sites and mRNA levels in the brain of ovariectomized rats with or without acute estradiol replacement. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 1999; 73(1–2): 119–28

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Wissink S, van der Burg B, Katzenellenbogen BS, et al. Synergistic activation of the serotonin-1A receptor by nuclear factor-kappa B and estrogen. Mol Endocrinol 2001; 15(4): 543–52

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Thompson DS, Spanier CA, Vogel VG. The relationship between tamoxifen, estrogen, and depressive symptoms. Breast J 1999; 5(6): 375–82

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Fisher B, Costantino JP, Wickerham DL, et al. Tamoxifen for prevention of breast cancer: report of the National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project P-l Study. J Natl Cancer Inst 1998; 90(18): 1371–88

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Cathcart CK, Jones SE, Pumroy CS, et al. Clinical recognition and management of depression in node negative breast cancer patients treated with tamoxifen. Breast Cancer Res Treat 1993; 27(3): 277–81

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Ganz PA. Impact of tamoxifen adjuvant therapy on symptoms, functioning, and quality of life. J Natl Cancer Inst Monogr 2001; 30: 130–4

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Yaffe K, Krueger K, Sarkar S, et al. Cognitive function in postmenopausal women treated with raloxifene. N Engl J Med 2001; 344(16): 1207–13

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Nickelsen T, Lufkin EG, Riggs BL, et al. Raloxifene hydrochloride, a selective estrogen receptor modulator: safety assessment of effects on cognitive function and mood in postmenopausal women. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1999; 24(1): 115–28

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Strickler R, Stovall DW, Merritt D, et al. Raloxifene and estrogen effects on quality of life in healthy postmenopausal women: a placebo-controlled randomized trial. Obstet Gynecol 2000; 96(3): 359–65

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Jarkova NB, Martenyi F, Masanauskaite D, et al. Mood effect of raloxifene in postmenopausal women. Maturitas 2002; 42(l): 71–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Ditkoff EC, Crary WG, Critso M, et al. Estrogen improves psychological function in asymptomatic postmenopausal women. Obstet Gynecol 1991; 78(6): 991–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Derman RJ, Dawood MY, Stone S. Quality of life during sequential hormone replacement therapy — a placebo-controlled study. Int J Fertil Menopausal Stud 1995; 40(2): 73–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Hlatky MA, Boothroyd D, Vittinghoff E, et al. Quality-of-life and depressive symptoms in postmenopausal women after receiving hormone therapy: results from the Heart and Estro-gen/Progestin Replacement Study (HERS) trial. Jama 2002; 287(5): 591–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Writing Group for the Women’s Health Initiative Investigators. Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women — principal results form the Women’s Health Initiative Randomized Controlled trial. JAMA 2002; 288(3): 321–33

    Article  Google Scholar 

  112. Stearns V, Isaacs C, Rowland J, et al. A pilot trial assessing the efficacy of paroxetine hydrochloride (Paxil) in controlling hot flashes in breast cancer survivors. Ann Oncol 2000; 11(1): 17–22

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Waldinger MD, Berendsen HH, Schweitzer DH. Treatment of hot flushes with mirtazapine: four case reports. Maturitas 2000; 36(3): 165–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Loprinzi CL, Kugler JW, Sloan JA, et al. Venlafaxine in management of hot flashes in survivors of breast cancer: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2000; 356(9247): 2059–63

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Albertazzi P, Pansini F, Bonaccorsi G, et al. The effect of dietary soy supplementation on hot flushes. Obstet Gynecol 1998; 91(1): 6–11

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. St Germain A, Peterson C, Robinson J, et al. Isoflavone-rich or isoflavone-poor soy protein does not reduce menopausal symptoms during 24 weeks of treatment. Menopause 2001; 8(1): 17–26

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Warnecke G. Using phyto-treatment to influence menopause symptoms. Med Welt 1985; 36: 871–4

    Google Scholar 

  118. Jacobson JS, Troxel AB, Evans J, et al. Randomized trial of black cohosh for the treatment of hot flashes among women with a history of breast cancer. J Clin Oncol 2001; 19(10): 2739–45

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors have no conflicts of interest directly relevant to the content of this review. This work was supported in part by a postdoctoral fellowship (Dr Soares) from CNPq, Brazil (process 200198-01-1). Dr Soares is a 2001 Callaghan Investigator, a recipient of a NARSAD (National Alliance for Research on Schizophrenia and Depression) Young Investigator award.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Harvard Medical School, MGH Center for Women’s Mental Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA

    Claudio N. Soares, Jennifer R. Poitras & Jennifer Prouty

Authors
  1. Claudio N. Soares
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jennifer R. Poitras
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jennifer Prouty
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Claudio N. Soares.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Soares, C.N., Poitras, J.R. & Prouty, J. Effect of Reproductive Hormones and Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators on Mood during Menopause. Drugs & Aging 20, 85–100 (2003). https://doi.org/10.2165/00002512-200320020-00001

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00002512-200320020-00001

Keywords

Search

Navigation