Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Photodynamic Therapy

A Review

  • Review Article
  • Published:
Drugs & Aging Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) of malignant tumours is a new technique for treating cancers. After intravenous injection, a photosensitiser is selectively retained by the tumour cells so after time there is more sensitiser in the tumour than in the normal adjacent tissue. The photosensitiser must be able to absorb the wavelength of light being delivered to it, and the amount of light getting to the photosensitiser depends on the characteristics of the tissue it passes through. When exposed to light with the proper wavelength, the sensitiser produces an activated oxygen species, singlet oxygen, that oxidises critical elements of neoplastic cells. Because there is less sensitiser in the adjacent normal tissue, less reaction occurs to it. Since this is an entirely different process, the use of chemotherapy, ionising radiation or surgery does not preclude the use of PDT. Also, unlike ionising irradiation, repeated injections and treatments can be made indefinitely.

Different molecules and atoms absorb different wavelengths of energy. Since the light energy must be absorbed to start the photochemical reaction, the absorption spectrum of the photosensitiser determines the wavelength used to initiate the reaction. However, this can be qualified by the tissue the light has to travel through to get to the photosensitiser.

The photosensitiser porfimer sodium has a peak absorption in the area of 405nm (blue-violet) and a much lower absorption peak at 630nm (red). However, because the longer red wavelength penetrates tissue deeper than 405nm, we use the red wavelength, usually delivered from a laser system. This permits coupling of the red light beam to quartz fibres which can then be used with modifications to treat external surface tumours, inserted interstitially directly into large tumours, passed though any endoscope to treat intraluminal tumours, or inserted behind the retina to treat tumours of the retina.

Twenty years after the pioneering work of Dr Thomas Doherty, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved the use of porfimer sodium for photodynamic therapy of endobronchial and oesophageal tumours. Research continues towards approval for management of skin cancers and metastatic cutaneous and subcutaneous breast cancers. The realisation that one of the mechanisms of photodynamic therapy is thrombosis of vessels led to the development of verteporfin to treat macular degeneration. Multiple other areas are being investigated as well as new photosensitisers. Photodynamic therapy is an entirely new treatment modality and its development can be likened to that of the discovery of antibiotics. This is just the beginning, and its possible uses are only limited by the imagination.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Dougherty TJ, Gomer CJ, Henderson BW, et al. Photodynamic therapy. J Natl Cancer Inst 1998; 90 (12): 889–905

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Raab O. Biol Z 1900; 39: 524

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Tappeiner H, Jodlebauer A. Die sensibilizierende Wirkung fluorescierender Substanzen. Leipzig: FCW Vogel, 1907

    Google Scholar 

  4. Policard A. Etudes sur les aspects offerts par des tumeur experimentales examinee a la lumiere de woods. CR Soc Biol 1924; 91: 1423–8

    Google Scholar 

  5. Blum HF. Photodynamic action and diseases caused by light: American Chemical Society Monograph Series. New York: Rhineholt Publishing Corp., 1941

    Google Scholar 

  6. Hausmann W. Biochem Z 1910; 30: 276

    Google Scholar 

  7. Meyer-Betz F. Deut Arch Klin Med 1913; 112: S476

    Google Scholar 

  8. Figge FHJ, Weiland GS, Manganiello LOJ. Cancer detection and therapy: affinity of neoplastic, embryonic, and traumatized tissues for porphyrins and metalloporphyrins. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1948; 68: 181–8

    Google Scholar 

  9. Rassmussen-Taxdal DS, Ward GE, Figge FHJ. Fluorescence of human lymphatic and cancer tissues following high doses of intravenous hematoporphyrin. Cancer 1955; 1: 78–81

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Lipson RL, Baldes EJ. The photodynamic properties of a particular hematoporphyrin derivative. Arch Dermatatol 1960; 82: 509–16

    Google Scholar 

  11. Lipson RL, Baldes EJ, Olsen AM. Hematoporphyrin derivative: a new aid of endoscopic detection of malignant disease. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1961; 42: 623–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Lipson RL, Gray MJ, Baldes EJ. Hematoporphyrin derivative for detection and management of cancer. Proceedings of the IXth International Cancer Congress; 1966, 323

  13. Gregorie Jr HB, Horger EO, Ward JL, et al. Hematoporphyrin-derivative fluorescence in malignant neoplasms. Ann Surg 1968; 167: 820–8

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Diamond I, Granelli S, McDonagh AF. Photodynamic therapy of malignant tumors. Lancet 1972; II: 1175–7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Kelly JF, Snell ME. Hematoporphyrin derivative: a possible aid in the diagnosis and therapy of carcinoma of the bladder. J Urol 1976; 115: 150–1

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Weishaupt KR, Gomer CK, Dougherty TJ. Identification of singlet oxygen as the cytotoxic agent in photo-inactivation of a murine tumor. Cancer Res 1976; 36: 2326–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Dougherty TJ, Kaufman JE, Goldfarb A, et al. Photoradiation therapy for the treatment of malignant tumors. Cancer Res 1978; 38: 2628–35

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Dougherty TJ, Thoma RE, Boyle DG, et al. Photoradiation therapy of malignant tumors; role of the laser. In: Pratesi R, Sacchi CA, editors. Lasers in photomedicine and photobiology. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1980: 67–75

    Google Scholar 

  19. Hayata Y, Kato H, Konaka C, et al. Hematoporphyrin derivative and laser photoradiation in the treatment of lung cancer. Chest 1982; 81: 269–77

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Wile AG, Dahlman A, Burns RG, et al. Laser photoradiation therapy of cancer following hematoporphyrin sensitization. Lasers Surg Med 1982; 2 (2): 163–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. McCaughan Jr JS, Guy JT, Hawley P, et al. Hematoporphyrin-derivative and photoradiation therapy of malignant tumors. Lasers Surg Med 1983; 3 (3): 199–209

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Hayata Y, Kato H. Laser and cancer therapy. Gan To Kagaku Ryoho 1983; 10 (6): 1387–94

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. McCaughan Jr JS, Hicks W, Laufman L, et al. Palliation of esophageal malignancy with photoradiation therapy. Cancer 1984; 54: 2905–10

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Bruce Jr RA. Evaluation of hematoporphyrin photoradiation therapy to treat choroidal melanomas. Lasers Surg Med 1984; 4 (1): 59–64

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Dougherty TJ, Potter WR, Weishaupt KR. The structure of the active component of hematoporphyrin derivative. In: Dorion DR, Gomer CJ, editors. Porphyrin localization and treatment of tumors. New York: Alan R Liss Inc., 1984: 301–14

    Google Scholar 

  26. McCaughan Jr JS, Ellison EC, Guy JT, et al. Photodynamic therapy for esophageal malignancy: a prospective twelve-year study. Ann Thorac Surg 1996; 62 (4): 1005–9

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. McCaughan Jr JS, Williams TE. Photodynamic therapy for endobronchial malignant disease: a prospective fourteen-year study. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1997; 114 (6): 940–6

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Agarwal R, Korman NJ, Mohan RR, et al. Apoptosis is an early event during phthalocyanine photodynamic therapy-induced ablation of chemically induced squamous papillomas in mouse skin. Photochem Photobiol 1996; 63 (4): 547–52

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Zaidi SI, Oleinick NL, Zaim MT, et al. Apoptosis during photodynamic therapy-induced ablation of RIF-1 tumors in C3H mice: electron microscopic, histopathologic and biochemical evidence. Photochem Photobiol 1993; 58 (6): 771–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. He XY, Sikes RA, Thomsen S, et al. Photodynamic therapy with photofrin II induces programmed cell death in carcinoma cell lines. Photochem Photobiol 1994; 59 (4): 468–73

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Laukka MA, Wang KK, Bonner JA. Apoptosis occurs in lymphoma cells but not in hepatoma cells following ionizing radiation and photodynamic therapy. Dig Dis Sci 1994; 39 (11): 2467–75

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Hotta S, Kashimura H, Hirai S, et al. Immediate changes in subcellular structures of transplanted tumours following photodynamic and laser hyperthermic therapy. Lasers Surg Med 1995; 16 (3): 262–71

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Luo Y, Chang CK, Kessel D. Rapid initiation of apoptosis by photodynamic therapy. Photochem Photobiol 1996; 63 (4): 528–34

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Kessel D, Luo Y, Deng Y, et al. The role of subcellular localization in initiation of apoptosis by photodynamic therapy. Photochem Photobiol 1997; 65 (3): 422–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Ratkay LG, Chowdhary RK, Iamaroon A, et al. Amelioration of antigen-induced arthritis in rabbits by induction of apoptosis of inflammatory cells with local application of transdermal photodynamic therapy. Arthritis Rheum 1998; 41 (3): 525–34

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Ketabchi A, MacRobert A, Speight PM, et al. Induction of apoptotic cell death by photodynamic therapy in human keratinocytes. Arch Oral Biol 1998; 43 (2): 143–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Fingar VH, Wieman TJ, Haydon PS. The effects of thrombocytopenia on vessel stasis and macromolecular leakage after photodynamic therapy using photofrin. Photochem Photobiol 1997; 66 (4): 513–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Andrejevic-Blant S, Hadjur C, Ballini JP, et al. Photodynamic therapy of early squamous cell carcinoma with tetra(mhydroxyphenyl)chlorin: optimal drug-light interval. Br J Cancer 1997; 76 (8): 1021–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. van Geel IP, Oppelaar H, Rijken PF, et al. Vascular perfusion and hypoxic areas in RIF-1 tumours after photodynamic therapy. Br J Cancer 1996; 73 (3): 288–93

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Wang I, Andersson-Engels S, Nilsson GE, et al. Superficial blood flow following photodynamic therapy of malignant non-melanoma skin tumours measured by laser Doppler perfusion imaging. Br J Dermatol 1997; 136 (2): 184–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Korbelik M. Induction of tumour immunity by photodynamic therapy. J Clin Laser Med Surg 1996; 14 (5) 329–34

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Korbelik M, Naraparaju VR, Yamamoto N. Macrophage-directed immunotherapy as adjuvant to photodynamic therapy of cancer. Br J Cancer 1997; 75 (2): 202–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Waterfield JD, Fairhurst M, Waterfield EM, et al. Evaluation of the immunotoxicity of benzoporphyrin derivative (BPD-MA) in mice. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol 1997; 19 (1): 89–103

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Canti G, Lattuada D, Nicolin A, et al. Antitumour immunity induced by photodynamic therapy with aluminum disulfonated phthalocyanines and laser light. Anticancer Drugs 1994; 5 (4): 443–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Simkin GO, King DE, Levy JG, et al. Inhibition of contact hypersensitivity with different analogs of benzoporphyrin derivative. Immunopharmacology 1997; 37 (2–3): 221–30

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Pandey RK, Zheng G, Lee DA, et al. Comparative in vivo sensitizing efficacy of porphyrin and chlorin dimers joined with ester, ether, carbon-carbon or amide bonds. J Mol Recognit 1996; 9 (2): 118–22

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Bethel BH, McCaughan Jr JS, Pendley CE. Coproporphyrin and urobilinogen levels after intravenous injection of HpD [abstract]. Presented at the 4th Annual Meeting of the American Society for Laser Medicine and Surgery: 1984 Jun 4–6; Salt Lake City, 354

  48. Kessel D, Smith KM, Pandey RK, et al. Photosensitization with bacteriochlorins. Photochem Photobiol 1993; 58 (2): 200–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Hamblin MR, Newman EL. On the mechanism of the tumour-localising effect in photodynamic therapy. J Photochem Photobiol B 1994; 23 (1): 3–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Jori G, Reddi E. The role of lipoproteins in the delivery of tumour-targeting photosensitizers. Int J Biochem 1993; 25 (10): 1369–75

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Maziere JC, Morliere P, Biade S, et al. Antitumour photochemotherapy: biochemical bases, therapeutic uses and perspectives. C R Seances Soc Biol Fil 1992; 186 (1–2): 88–106

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. McCaughan JS Jr, Miller C. Photosensitizer dosage: mg/kg or mg2 of body surface? In: Dougherty TJ, editor. Optical methods for tumor treatment and detection: mechanisms and techniques in photodynamic therapy II. Vol. 1881. Proceedings of the International Society for Optical Engineering (SPIE); 1993 Jan 17–22: Los Angeles (CA). Bellingham (WA): SPIE, 1993: 26–34

    Google Scholar 

  53. McCaughan Jr JS. PDT of endobronchial tumours on the same day as injection of the photosensitizer DHE. Clin Laser Mon 1993; 57–8

    Google Scholar 

  54. McCaughan Jr JS. PDT repeated without reinjection of photofrin (porfimer sodium). In: Dougherty TJ, editor. Optical methods for tumour treatment and detection: mechanisms and techniques in photodynamic therapy. Vol. 3247. Proceedings of the International Society for Optical Engineering (SPIE); 1998 Jan 27–29: San Jose (CA). Bellingham (WA): SPIE, 1998: 331–4

    Google Scholar 

  55. McCaughan Jr JS, Hawley PC, Brown DG, et al. Effect of light dose on the photodynamic destruction of endobronchial tumours. Ann Thorac Surg 1992; 54 (4): 705–11

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Fingar VH, Potter WR, Henderson BW. Drug and light dose dependence of photodynamic therapy: a study of tumour cell clonogenecity and histologic changes. Photochem Photobiol 1987; 45: 643–50

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Georgakoudi I, Foster TH. Singlet oxygen- versus nonsinglet oxygen-mediated mechanisms of sensitizer photobleaching and their effects on photodynamic dosimetry. Photochem Photobiol 1998; 67 (6): 612–25

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. McCaughan Jr JS, Guy JT, Hicks W, et al. Photodynamic therapy for cutaneous and subcutaneous malignant neoplasms. Arch Surg 1989; 124 (2): 211–6

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Waldow SM, Henderson BW, Dougherty TJ. Hyperthermic potentiation of photodynamic therapy employing photofrin I and II: comparison of results using three animal tumour models. Lasers Surg Med 1987; 7: 12–22

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Henderson BW, Bellnier DA. Tissue localization of photosensitizers and the mechanism of photodynamic tissue destruction [discussion 125–30]. Ciba Found Symp 1989; 146: 112–25

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Henderson BW, Bellnier DA, Greco WR, et al. An in vivo quantitative structure-activity relationship for a congeneric series of pyropheophorbide derivatives as photosensitizers for photodynamic therapy. Cancer Res 1997; 57 (18): 4000–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Akhlynina TV, Rosenkranz AA, Jans DA, et al. Insulin-mediated intracellular targeting enhances the photodynamic activity of chlorin e6. Cancer Res 1995; 55 (5): 1014–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Van Iperen HP, Schuitmaker HJ, Beijersbergen van Henegouwen GM. Non-specific systemic immune suppression induced by photodynamic treatment of lymph node cells with bacteriochlorin a. Photochem Photobiol B 1995; 28 (3): 197–202

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Yamazaki T, Sato Y, Sieber F. Role of cytoprotective mechanisms in the photochemical purging of autologous bone marrow grafts. Exp Hematol 1997; 25 (7): 629–37

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Muller S, Walt H, Dobler-Girdziunaite D, et al. Enhanced photodynamic effects using fractionated laser light. J Photochem Photobiol B 1998; 42 (1): 67–70

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Veenhuizen RB, Ruevekamp MC, Oppelaar H, et al. Foscanmediated photodynamic therapy for a peritoneal-cancer model: drug distribution and efficacy studies. Int J Cancer 1997; 73 (2): 230–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Luo Y, Kessel D. Initiation of apoptosis versus necrosis by photodynamic therapy with chloroaluminum phthalocyanine. Photochem Photobiol 1997; 66 (4): 479–83

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Minnock A, Vernon DI, Schofield J, et al. Photoinactivation of bacteria: use of a cationic water-soluble zinc phthalocyanine to photoinactivate both gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. J Photochem Photobiol B 1996; 32 (3): 159–64

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Allemann E, Brasseur N, Kudrevich SV. Photodynamic activities and biodistribution of fluorinated zinc phthalocyanine derivatives in the murine EMT-6 tumour model. Int J Cancer 1997; 72 (2): 289–94

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Woodburn KW, Fan Q, Miles DR, Kessel D, et al. Localization and efficacy analysis of the phototherapeutic lutetium texaphyrin (PCI-0123) in the murine EMT6 sarcoma model. Photochem Photobiol 1997; 65 (3): 410–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Rifkin R, Reed B, Hetzel F, et al. Photodynamic therapy using SnET2 for basal cell nevus syndrome: a case report. Clin Ther 1997; 19 (4): 639–41

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Rocklin GB, Kelly HG, Anderson SC, et al. Photodynamic therapy of rat endometrium sensitized with tin ethyl etiopurpurin. J Am Assoc Gynecol Laparosc 1996; 3 (4): 561–70

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Fisher AM, Danenberg K, Banerjee D, et al. Increased photosensitivity in HL60 cells expressing wild-type p53. Photochem Photobiol 1997; 66 (2): 265–70

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Kaplan MJ, Somers RG, Greenberg RH, et al. Photodynamic therapy in the management of metastatic cutaneous adenocarcinomas: case reports from phase 1/2 studies using tin ethyl etiopurpurin (SnET2). J Surg Oncol 1998; 67 (2): 121–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Hadjur C, Richard MJ, Parat MO, et al. Photodynamically induced cytotoxicity of hypericin dye on human fibroblast cell line MRC5. J Photochem Photobiol B 1995; 27 (2): 139–46

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Schmidt-Erfurth U, Miller J, Sickenberg M, et al. Photodynamic therapy of subfoveal choroidal neovascularization: clinical and angiographic examples. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 1998; 236 (5): 365–74

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Husain D, Miller JW, Kenney AG, et al. Photodynamic therapy and digital angiography of experimental iris neovascularization using liposomal benzoporphyrin derivative. Ophthalmology 1997; 104 (8): 1242–50

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Trauner KB, Gandour Edwards R, Bamberg M, et al. Photodynamic synovectomy using benzoporphyrin derivative in an antigen-induced arthritis model for rheumatoid arthritis. Photochem Photobiol 1998; 67 (1) 133–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Kennedy JC, Portier RH, Pross DC. Photodynamic therapy with endogenous protoporphyrin IX: basic principles and present clinical experience. J Photochem Photobiol B 1990; 6 (1–2): 143–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Loh CS, MacRobert AJ, Bedwell J, et al. Oral versus intravenous administration of 5-aminolaevulinic acid for photodynamic therapy. Br J Cancer 1993; 68 (1): 41–51

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Tope WD, Ross EV, Kollias N, et al. Protoporphyrin IX fluorescence induced in basal cell carcinoma by oral deltaaminolevulinic acid. Photochem Photobiol 1998; 67 (2): 249–55

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Gossner L, Stolte M, Sroka R, et al. Photodynamic ablation of high-grade dysplasia and early cancer in Barrett’s esophagus by means of 5-aminolevulinic acid. Gastroenterology 1998; 114 (3): 448–55

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Regula J, MacRobert AJ, Gorchein A, et al. Photosensitisation and photodynamic therapy of oesophageal, duodenal, and colorectal tumours using 5 aminolaevulinic acid induced protoporphyrin IX: a pilot study. Gut 1995; 36 (1): 67–75

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Peng Q, Warloe T, Moan J, et al. Distribution of 5-aminolevulinic acid-induced porphyrins in noduloulcerative basal cell carcinoma. Photochem Photobiol 1995; 62 (5): 906–13

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Calzavara-Pinton PG. Repetitive photodynamic therapy with topical delta-aminolaevulinic acid as an appropriate approach to the routine treatment of superficial non-melanoma skin tumours. J Photochem Photobiol B 1995; 29 (1): 53–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Wennberg AM, Lindholm LE, Alpsten M, et al. Treatment of superficial basal cell carcinomas using topically applied delta-aminolaevulinic acid and a filtered xenon lamp. Arch Dermatol Res 1996; 288 (10): 561–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Fijan S, Honigsmann H, Ortel B. Photodynamic therapy of epithelial skin tumours using delta-aminolaevulinic acid and desferrioxamine. Br J Dermatol 1995; 133 (2): 282–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Fink-Puches R, Hofer A, Smolle J, et al. Primary clinical response and long-term follow-up of solar keratoses treated with topically applied 5-aminolevulinic acid and irradiation by different wave bands of light. J Photochem Photobiol B 1997; 41 (1–2): 145–51

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Fritsch C, Stege H, Saalmann G, et al. Green light is effective and less painful than red light in photodynamic therapy of facial solar keratoses. Photodermatol Photoimmunol Photomed 1997; 13 (5–6): 181–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Kloek J, Akkermans W, Beijersbergen van Henegouwen GM. Derivatives of 5-aminolevulinic acid for photodynamic therapy: enzymatic conversion into protoporphyrin. Photochem Photobiol 1998; 67 (1): 150–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Cairnduff F, Stringer MR, Hudson EJ, et al. Superficial photodynamic therapy with topical 5-aminolaevulinic acid for superficial primary and secondary skin cancer. Br J Cancer 1994; 69 (3): 605–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Waidelich R, Hofstetter A, Stepp H, et al. Early clinical experience with 5-aminolevulinic acid for the photodynamic therapy of upper tract urothelial tumours. J Urol 1998; 159 (2): 401–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Peng Q, Warloe T, Berg K, et al. 5-Aminolevulinic acid-based photodynamic therapy: clinical research and future challenges. Cancer 1997; 79 (12): 2282–308

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. McCaughan Jr JS, Ellison EC, Guy JT, et al. Photodynamic therapy for esophageal malignancy: a prospective 12 year study. Ann Thorac Surg 1996; 62: 1005–10

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Overholt BF, Panjehpour M. Photodynamic therapy for Barrett’s esophagus: clinical update. Am J Gastroenterol 1996; 91 (9): 1719–23

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Spinelli P, Mancini A, Dal Fante M. Endoscopic treatment of gastrointestinal tumours: indications and results of laser photocoagulation and photodynamic therapy. Semin Surg Oncol 1995; 11 (4): 307–18

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Sibille A, Lambert R, Souquet J, et al. Long-term survival after photodynamic therapy for esophageal carcinoma. Gastroenterology 1995; (108): 337–44

    Google Scholar 

  98. McCaughan JS Jr. Photodynamic therapy versus Nd-Yag laser treatment of endobronchial or esophageal malignancies. In: Spinelli P, Dal Fante M, Marchesini R, editors. Photodynamic therapy and biomedical lasers. Elsevier Science Publishers: New York, 1992: 23–36

    Google Scholar 

  99. Lightdale CJ, Heier SK, Marcon NE, et al. Photodynamic therapy with porfimer sodium versus thermal ablation therapy with Nd: YAG laser for palliation of esophageal cancer: a multicenter randomized trial. Gastrointest Endosc 1995; 42 (6): 507–12

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Hesketh PJ, Clapp RW, Doos WG, S, et al. The increasing frequency of adenocarcinoma of the esophagus. Cancer 1989; 64: 526–30

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Blot WJ, Devesa SS, Kneller RW, et al. Rising incidence of adenocarcinoma of the esophagus and gastric cardia. JAMA 1991; 265: 1287–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Birgisson S, Rice TW, Kirk A, et al. The lack of association of between adenocarcinoma of the esophagus and gastric surgery: a retrospective study. Am J Gastroenterol 1997; 92: 216–21

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Kirby TJ, Rice TW. The epidemiology of esophageal carcinoma, in chest surgery clinics of North America. In: Rice TW, Kirby TJ, editors. Esophageal carcinoma. Vol. 4 (2). Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1994: 217–25

    Google Scholar 

  104. Hansen S, Wilg JN, Giercksky KE, et al. Esophageal and gastric carcinoma in Norway 1958–1992: incidence time trend variability according to morphological subtypes and organ subsites. Int J Cancer 1997; 71: 340–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Phillips RW, Wong RKH. Barrett’s esophagus: natural history, incidence, etiology and complications. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 1991; 20: 791–817

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Reid BJ. Barrett’s esophagus and esophageal adenocarcinoma. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 1991; 20: 817–34

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Clark GW, Smyrk TC, Burdiles P, et al. Is Barrett’s metaplasia the source of adenocarcinoma of the cardia? Arch Surg 1994; 129: 609–14

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Ollyo JB, Monnier P, Fontolliet C, et al. The natural history, prevalence and incidence of reflux oesophagitis. Gullet 1993; Suppl. 3: 3–10

    Google Scholar 

  109. Orlando RC. Reflux esophagitis. In: Yamada T, Alpers DH, Owang C, et al., editors. Textbook of gastroenterology. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott, 1995: 1214–42

    Google Scholar 

  110. Criman DK, Riddell RH. The distinction between adenocarcinoma of the cardia and Barrett’s cancer. In: Wastell C, Nyhus LM, Donahue PE, editors. Surgery of the esophagus, stomach and small intestine. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1995: 236–53

    Google Scholar 

  111. Ott DJ, Wu WC, Gelfand DW. Reflux esophagitis revisited: prospective analysis of radiological accuracy. Gatrointest Radiol 1981; 6: 1

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Kerlin P, d’Mellow G, van Deth A. Barrett’s esophagus: clinical, endoscopic, and histologic spectrum in fifty patients. Aust N Z J Med 1986; 16: 198–205

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Biddlestone LR, Barham CP, Wilkinson SP, et al. The histopathology of treated Barrett’s esophagus: squamous reepithelialization after acid suppression and laser and photodynamic therapy. Am J Surg Pathol 1998; 22 (2): 239–45

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. McCaughan Jr JS, Williams T. Photodynamic therapy for endobronchial malignancy: a prospective 14 year study. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1997; 114 (6): 940–6

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. McCaughan Jr JS, Barabash R, Hawley P. Stage III endobronchial squamous cell cancer: survival after Nd:YAG laser combined with photodynamic therapy vs Nd:YAG laser or photodynamic therapy alone. In: Dougherty TJ, editor. Optical methods for tumour treatment and detection: mechanisms and techniques in photodynamic therapy. Vol. 1426. Proceedings of the International Society for Optical Engineering (SPIE); 1991 Jan 20–25: Los Angeles (CA). Bellingham (WA): SPIE, 1991: 279–87

    Google Scholar 

  116. Kato H, Okunaka T, Shimatani H. Photodynamic therapy for early stage bronchogenic carcinoma. J Clin Laser Med Surg 1996; 14 (5): 235–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Cortese DA, Edell ES, Kinsey JH. Photodynamic therapy for early stage squamous cell carcinoma of the lung. Mayo Clin Proc 1997; 72 (7): 595–602

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. McCaughan Jr JS, Williams Jr T, Hawley P, et al. Endobronchial photodynamic therapy for hemoptysis. In: Dougherty TJ, editor. Optical methods for tumor treatment and detection: mechanisms and techniques in photodynamic therapy. Vol. 2133. Proceedings of the International Society for Optical Engineering (SPIE); 1994 Jan 23–29: Los Angeles (CA). Bellingham (WA): SPIE, 1994: 2–9

    Google Scholar 

  119. McCaughan Jr JS, Hawley PC, LaRosa JC, et al. Photodynamic therapy to control life-threatening hemorrhage from hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia. Lasers Surg Med 1996; 19 (4): 492–4

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Shikowitz MJ, Abramson AL, Freeman K, et al. Efficacy of DHE photodynamic therapy for respiratory papillomatosis: immediate and long-term results. Laryngoscope 1998; 108 (7): 962–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. McCaughan Jr JS. Photodynamic therapy of skin and esophageal cancers. Cancer Invest 1990; (8): 407–16

    Google Scholar 

  122. Khan SA, Dougherty TJ, Mang TS. An evaluation of photodynamic therapy in the management of cutaneous metastases of breast cancer. Eur J Cancer 1993; 29A(12): 1686–90

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. McCaughan Jr JS, Mertens BF, Cho C, et al. Photodynamic therapy to treat tumors of the extrahepatic biliary ducts: a case report. Arch Surg 1991; 126 (1): 111–3

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Schuller DE, McCaughan Jr JS, Rock RP. Photodynamic therapy in head and neck cancer. Arch Otolaryngol 1985; 111 (6): 351–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Biel MA. Photodynamic therapy of head and neck cancers. Semin Surg Oncol 1995; 11 (5): 355–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Schweitzer VG, Visscher D. Photodynamic therapy for treatment of AIDS-related oral Kaposi’s sarcoma. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1990; 102 (6): 639–49

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Hebeda KM, Huizing MT, Brouwer PA, et al. Photodynamic therapy in AIDS-related cutaneous Kaposi’s sarcoma. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 1995; 10 (1): 61–70

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Nseyo UO, Shumaker B, Klein EA, et al. Photodynamic therapy using porfimer sodium as an alternative to cystectomy in patients with refractory transitional cell carcinoma in situ of the bladder. J Urol 1998; 160 (1): 39–44

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Lee LK, Whitehurst C, Pantelides ML, et al. In situ comparison of 665 nm and 633 nm wavelength light penetration in the human prostate gland. Photochem Photobiol 1995; 62 (5): 882–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Chang SC, Buonaccorsi GA, MacRobert AJ, et al. Interstitial photodynamic therapy in the canine prostate with disulfonated aluminum phthalocyanine and 5-aminolevulinic acid-induced protoporphyrin IX. Prostate 1997; 32 (2): 89–98

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Muller PJ, Wilson BC. Photodynamic therapy for recurrent supratentorial gliomas. Semin Surg Oncol 1995; 11 (5): 346–54

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. Kaye AH, Hill JS. Photodynamic therapy of brain tumours. Ann Acad Med Singapore 1993; 22 (3 Suppl.): 470–81

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Ward BG, Forbes IJ, Cowled PA, et al. The treatment of vaginal recurrences of gynecologic malignancy with phototherapy following hematoporphyrin derivative pre-treatment. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1982; 142: 356–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Soma H, Nutahara S. Cancer of the female genitalia. In: Hayata Y, Dougherty TJ, editors. Lasers and hematoporphyrin derivative in cancer. New York: Igaku-Shoin, 1983: 97–109

    Google Scholar 

  135. Monk BJ, Brewer C, VanNostrand K, et al. Photodynamic therapy using topically applied dihematoporphyrin ether in the treatment of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. Gynecol Oncol 1997; 64 (1): 70–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. McCaughan Jr JS, Schellhas HF, Lomano J, et al. Photodynamic therapy of gynecologic neoplasms after presensitization with hematoporphyrin derivative. Lasers Surg Med 1985; 5: 491–8

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Pass HI, Temeck BK, Kranda K, et al. Phase III randomized trial of surgery with or without intraoperative photodynamic therapy and postoperative immunochemotherapy for malignant pleural mesothelioma. Ann Surg Oncol 1997; 4 (8): 628–33

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Takita H, Dougherty TJ. Intracavitary photodynamic therapy for malignant pleural mesothelioma. Semin Surg Oncol 1995; 11 (5): 368–71

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Baas P, Murrer L, Zoetmulder FA, et al. Photodynamic therapy as adjuvant therapy in surgically treated pleural malignancies. Br J Cancer 1997; 76 (6): 819–26

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. Chang CJ, Lee YH, Yang JY, et al. Pilot in vitro toxicity study of 5-ALA and photofrin in microvascular endothelial cell cultures. J Clin Laser Med Surg 1997; 15 (2): 83–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. Gonschior P, Vogel-Wiens C, Goetz AE, et al. Endovascular catheter-delivered photodynamic therapy in an experimental response to injury model. Basic Res Cardiol 1997; 92 (5): 310–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  142. Litvack F, Grundfest WS, Forrester JS, et al. Effects of hematoporphyrin derivative and photodynamic therapy on atherosclerotic rabbits. Am J Cardiol 1985; 56 (10): 667–71

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. Jamieson CH, McDonald WN, Levy JG. Preferential uptake of benzoporphyrin derivative by leukemic versus normal cells. Leuk Res 1990; 14 (3): 209–19

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  144. Gluck S, Chadderton A, Ho AD. The selective uptake of benzoporphyrin derivative mono-acid ring A results in differential cell kill of multiple myeloma cells in vitro. Photochem Photobiol 1996; 63 (6): 846–53

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Laser Medical Research Foundation and Grant Laser Center, 323 E. Town St, Columbus, Ohio, 43215, USA

    James S. McCaughan Jr

Authors
  1. James S. McCaughan Jr
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to James S. McCaughan Jr.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

McCaughan, J.S. Photodynamic Therapy. Drugs & Aging 15, 49–68 (1999). https://doi.org/10.2165/00002512-199915010-00005

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00002512-199915010-00005

Keywords

Search

Navigation