Summary
Insulin has been in therapeutic use for around 70 years, and the range of adverse effects associated with its use is very limited. Insulin allergy and other local cutaneous reactions, which were common with the early insulins, are now rarely seen with highly purified and biosynthetic preparations. By far the most important complication of exogenous insulin is hypoglycaemia, which affects almost all insulin-treated patients and is largely a manifestation of nonphysiological insulin regimens and routes of administration. The problem of hypoglycaemia unawareness is now being increasingly recognised, with onset of severe neuroglycopenia and coma which is not preceded by the characteristic warning symptoms associated with autonomic activation. This can occur with excessively tight glycaemic control, and this situation is usually reversible. More commonly, however, hypoglycaemia unawareness is a chronic problem which is predominantly a feature of long duration of diabetes. Although individual episodes of hypoglycaemic coma can usually be effectively treated with parenteral dextrose or glucagon, management of patients with chronic hypoglycaemia unawareness is a difficult clinical challenge, with limited therapeutic options. In the past few years, there has been concern that the use of human insulin preparations may predispose to hypoglycaemia unawareness. The evidence for and against this is discussed, although at present it is difficult to draw any absolutely firm conclusions.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abramson EA, Arky RA, Woeber KA. Effects of propranolol on the hormonal and metabolic responses to insulin-induced hypoglycaemia. Lancet 2: 1386–1388, 1966
Adamson U, Lins P-E, Efendic S, Hamberger B, Wajngot A. Impaired counterregulation of hypoglycaemia in a group of in-sulindependent diabetics with recurrent episodes of severe hypoglycaemia. Acta Medica Scandinavica 216: 215–222, 1984
Agardh CD, Kalimo H, Olsson Y, Siesjo BR. Hypoglycaemic brain injury. Acta Neuropathologica 50: 31–41, 1980
Amiel SA, Sherwin RS, Simonson DC, Tamborlane WV. Effect of intensive insulin therapy on glycemic thresholds for counterregulatory hormone release. Diabetes 37: 901–907, 1988
Amiel SA, Tamborlane WV, Simonson DC, Sherwin RS. Defective glucose counter-regulation after strict glycemic control of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. New England Journal of Medicine 316: 1376–1383, 1987
Anderson JA, Adkinson NF. Allergic reactions to drugs and biologic agents. Journal of the American Medical Association 258: 2891–2899, 1987
Arky RA, Veverbrants E, Abramson EA. Irreversible hypoglycaemia. A complication of alcohol and insulin. Journal of the American Medical Association 206: 575–578, 1968
Asplin CM, Hartog M. Serum free insulin concentrations during the treatment of diabetic coma and pre-coma with low dose intramuscular insulin. Diabetologia 13: 475–480, 1977
Balodimos C, Root HF. Hypoglycaemic insulin reactions without warning symptoms. Journal of the American Medical Association 171: 261–266, 1959
Banting FG, Franks WR, Cairns S. Anti-insulin activity of serum of insulin treated patients. American Journal of Psychiatry 95: 562–565, 1938
Berger M. Much ado about hypoglycaemia (un)awareness. Diabetologia 30: 829–833, 1987
Berger M, Cuppers HJ, Hegner H, Jorgens V, Berchtold P. Absorption kinetics and biologic effects of subcutaneously injected insulin preparations. Diabetes Care 5: 77–91, 1982
Berger W, Keller U, Honegger B, Jaeggi E. Warning symptoms of hypoglycaemia during treatment with human and porcine insulin in diabetes mellitus. Lancet 1: 1041–1044, 1989
Berlin I, Grimaldi A, Landault C, Zoghbi F, Thervet F, et al. Lack of hypoglycaemic symptoms and decreased beta-adrenergic sensitivity in insulin-dependent diabetic patients. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 66: 273–278, 1988
Berson S, Yalow RS. Quantitative aspects of the reaction between insulin and insulin binding antibody. Journal of Clinical Investigation 38: 1996–2016, 1959
Bhatia V, Wolfsdorf JI. Severe hypoglycaemia in youth with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: frequency and causative factors. Pediatrics 88: 1187–1193, 1991
Binder C, Lauritzen T, Faber O, Pramming S. Insulin pharmacokinetics. Diabetes Care 7: 188–199, 1984
Binder Nielsen A, Jorgensen K. The absorption of an acid and a neutral solution after subcutaneous injection into different regions in diabetic patients. Scandinavian Journal of Clinical and Laboratory Investigation 19: 156–163, 1967
Blackman JD, Towle VL, Lewis GF, Spire J-P, Polonsky KS. Hypoglycaemic thresholds for cognitive dysfunction in humans. Diabetes 39: 828–835, 1990
Bock T, Pedersen CR, Josefsen K, Bottazzo GF, Palmer JP, et al. No risk of diabetes after insulin-shock treatment. Lancet 339: 1504–1506, 1992
Boden G, Soriano M, Hoeldke RD, Owen OE. Counterregulatory hormone release and glucose recovery after hypoglycemia in non insulin-dependent diabetic patients. Diabetes 32: 1055–1059, 1983
Bolli GB, De Feo P, Compagnucci P, Catechini MG, Angeletti G, et al. Abnormal glucose counterregulation in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: interaction of anti-insulin antibodies and impaired glucagon and epinephrine secretion. Diabetes 32: 134–141, 1983
Olli GB, Dimitriadis GD, Pehling GB, Baker BA, Haymond MW, et al. Abnormal glucose counterregulation after subcutaneous insulin in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. New England Journal of Medicine 310: 1706–1711, 1984a
Bolli GB, Gottesman IS, Campbell PJ, Haymond MW, Cryer PE, et al. Glucose counter-regulation and waning of insulin in the Somogyi phenomenon (post hypoglycaemic hyperglycaemia). New England Journal of Medicine 311: 1214–1219, 1984b
Bolli GB, Tsalikian E, Haymond MW, Cryer PE, Gerich JE. Defective glucose counterregulation after subcutaneous insulin in noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Journal of Clinical Investigation 73: 1532–1541, 1984c
Casparie AF, Elving LD. Severe hypoglycaemia in diabetic patients: frequency, causes, prevention. Diabetes Care 8: 141–145, 1985
Clausen Sjobom N, Lins P-E, Adamson U, Theodorsson E. A comparative study on the hormonal responses to insulin-induced hypoglycaemia using semi-synthetic human insulin and pork insulin in patients with Type 1 diabetes mellitus. Diabetic Medicine 7: 775–779, 1990
Colagiuri S, Miller JJ, Petocz P. Double-blind crossover comparison of human and porcine insulins in patients reporting lack of hypoglycaemia awareness. Lancet 339: 1432–1435, 1992
Collier A, Steedman DJ, Patrick AW, Nimmo GR, Matthews DM, et al. Comparison of intravenous glucagon and dextrose in treatment of severe hypoglycemia in an accident and emergency department. Diabetes Care 10: 712–751, 1987
Corp E, Woods SC, Porte D, Dorsa D, Figlewicz D, et al. Localisation of insulin binding sites in the rat hypothalamus by quantitative autoradiography. Neuroscience Letters 79: 17–22, 1986
Corrali RJM, Frier BM, Davidson NMcD, Hopkins WM, French EB. Cholinergic manifestations of the acute autonomic reaction to hypoglycaemia in man. Clinical Science 64: 49–53, 1983
Corrali RJM, Frier BM, McClemont E, Taylor S, Christie N. Re-covery mechanisms from acute hypoglycemia in complete tetraplegia. Paraplegia 17: 314–318, 1979
Cryer PE. Glucose counterregulation in man. Diabetes 30: 261–264, 1981
Cryer PE. Iatrogenic hypoglycaemia as a cause of hypoglycemia-associated autonomic failure in IDDM: a vicious cycle. Diabetes 41: 255–260, 1992
Cryer PE, White NH, Santiago JV. The relevance of glucose counterregulatory systems to patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Endocrine Reviews 7: 131–139, 1986
Daneman D, Frank M, Perlman K, Tamm J, Ehrlich R. Severe hypoglycaemia in children with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: frequency and predisposing factors. Journal of Pediatrics 115: 681–685, 1989
DCCT Research Group. Diabetes Control and Complications Trial (DCCT): results of feasibility study. Diabetes Care 10: 1–19, 1987
DCCT Research Group. Epidemiology of severe hypoglycemia in the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial. American Journal of Medicine 90: 450–459, 1991
Diamond M, Hallarman L, Starich-Zych K, Jones TW, Connolly-Howard M, et al. Suppression of counterregulatory response to hypoglycaemia by insulin per se. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 72: 1388–1390, 1991
Dillon RS. Improved serum insulin profiles in diabetic individuals who massaged their insulin injection sites. Diabetes Care 6: 399–401, 1983
Dixon K. Measurement of antibodies to insulin in serum. Clinical Chemistry 20: 1275–1281, 1974
Egger M, Davey-Smith G, Imhoof H, Teuscher A. Risk of severe hypoglycaemia in insulin treated diabetic patients transferred to human insulin: a case controlled study. British Medical Journal 303: 617–621, 1991b
Egger M, Davey-Smith G, Teuscher AU, Teuscher A. Influence of human insulin on symptoms and awareness of hypoglycaemia: a randomised double blind crossover trial. British Medical Journal 303: 622–626, 1991c
Egger M, Gschwand S, Davey Smith G, Zuppinger K. Increasing incidence of hypoglycemic coma in children with IDDM. Diabetes Care 14: 1001–1005, 1991a
Elrick H, Witten TA, Arai Y. Glucagon treatment of insulin reactions. New England Journal of Medicine 258: 476–480, 1958
Ferrer JP, Esmatjes E, Gonzalez-Clemente JM, Goday A, Conget I, et al. Symptomatic and hormonal hypoglycaemic responses to human and porcine insulin in patients with Type 1 diabetes mellitus. Diabetic Medicine 9: 522–527, 1992
Fisher BM, Gray CE, Beastall GH, Frier BM. Responses to acute insulin-induced hypoglycaemia in diabetic patients: a comparison of short-acting porcine and human insulins. Diabetes Research 8: 1–8, 1988
Frid A, Linde Where do lean diabetics inject their insulin? A study using computed tomography. British Medical Journal 292: 1638, 1986
Frier BM. Hypoglycaemia and diabetes. Diabetic Medicine 3: 513–525, 1986
Galloway JA, Spradlin CT, Root MA, Fineberg SE. The plasma glucose response to neutral regular and NPH biosynthetic human and purified porcine insulins. Diabetes Care 4: 183–188, 1981
Gerich JE, Langlois M, Noacco C, Karam JH, Forsham PH. Lack of glucagon response to hypoglycemia in diabetes: evidence for an intrinsic pancreatic alpha cell defect. Science 182: 171–173, 1973
Gill GV, Jones KE. Beef to human insulin: dose for dose? Lancet 1: 1305, 1988
Ginsberg J, Paton A. Effects of insulin after adrenalectomy. Lancet 2: 491–494, 1956
Goldgewicht Slama D, Papoz L, Tchobroutsky D. Hypoglycaemic reactions in 172 Type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetic patients. Diabetologia 24: 95–99, 1983
Haist RE, Campbell J, Best CH. The prevention of diabetes. New England Journal of Medicine 223: 607–615, 1940
Heine RJ, van der Heyden EAP, van der Veen EA. Responses to human and porcine insulin in healthy subjects. Lancet 2: 946–949, 1989
Heller SR, Cryer PE. Reduced neuroendocrine and symptomatic responses to subsequent hypoglycemia after 1 episode of hypoglycemia in nondiabetic humans. Diabetes 40: 223–226, 1991
Heller SR, Macdonald IA, Tattersall RB. Counterregulation in Type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus: normal endocrine and glycaemic responses, up to 10 years after diagnosis. Diabetologia 30: 924–929, 1987
Hepburn DA, Deary IJ, Frier BM. Classification of symptoms of hypoglycaemia in insulin-treated diabetic patients using factor analysis: relationship to hypoglycaemia unawareness. Diabetic Medicine 9: 70–75, 1992
Hepburn DA, Deary IJ, Frier BM, Patrick AW, Quinn JD, et al. Symptoms of acute insulin induced hypoglycemia in humans with and without IDDM: factor-analysis approach. Diabetes Care 14: 949–957, 1991a
Hepburn DA, Eadington DW, Patrick AW, Colledge NR, Frier BM. Symptomatic awareness of hypoglycaemia: does it change on transfer from animal to human insulin? Diabetic Medicine 6: 586–590, 1989b
Hepburn DA, Patrick AW, Brash HM, Thomson I, Frier BM. Hypoglycaemia unawareness in Type 1 diabetes: a lower plasma glucose is required to stimulate sympatho-adrenal activation. Diabetic Medicine 8: 934–945, 1991b
Hepburn DA, Patrick AW, Eadington DW, Ewing DJ, Frier BM. Unawareness of hypoglycaemia in insulin-treated diabetic patients: prevalence and relationship to autonomie neuropathy. Diabetic Medicine 7: 711–717, 1990
Hepburn DA, Steel JM, Frier BM. Hypoglycaemic convulsions cause serious musculoskeletal injuries in patients with IDDM. Diabetes Care 12: 32–34, 1989a
Hilsted J, Madsbad S, Krarup T, Sestoft L, Christensen NJ, et al. Hormonal, metabolic and cardiovascular responses to hypog-lycemia in diabetic autonomic neuropathy. Diabetes 30: 626–633, 1981
Hoeldtke RD, Boden G, Shuman CR, Owen OE. Reduced epinephrine secretion and hypoglycemia unawareness in diabetic autonomie neuropathy. Annals of Internal Medicine 96: 459–462, 1982
Home PD, Alberti KGMM. Human insulin. Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 11: 453–483, 1982
Jones TW, Caprio S, Diamond MP, Hallarman L, Boulware SD, et al. Does insulin species modify counterregulatory hormone response to hypoglycemia? Diabetes Care 14: 728–731, 1991
Joslin E, Gray H, Root H. Insulin in hospital, home. Journal of Metabolic Research 21: 655–699, 1924
Kalimo H, Olsson Y. Effects of severe hypoglycaemia on the human brain: neuropathological case reports. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica 62: 345–356, 1980
Kern W, Lieb Kerner W, Born J, Fehm HL. Differential effects of human and pork insulin-induced hypoglycemia in neuronal function in humans. Diabetes 39: 1091–1098, 1990
Kerr D, Macdonald IA, Tattersall RB. Adaptation to mild hypo-glycaemia in normal subjects despite sustained increases in counter-regulatory hormones. Diabetologia 32: 249–254, 1989
Kerr D, Reza M, Smith N, Leatherdale BA. Importance of insulin in subjective, cognitive and and hormonal responses to hypoglycemia in patients with IDDM. Diabetes 39: 1057–1062, 1991
Kloppel G. ’Insulin’ induced insulitis. Acta Endocrinologica 83 (Suppl.): 107–121, 1976
Knight G, Boulton AJM, Drury J, Gamsu DS, Moses JL, et al. A feasability study of the use of continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion in a diabetic clinic: patients choice of treatment. Diabetic Medicine 1: 267–272, 1984
Knight G, Jennings AM, Boulton AJM, Tomlinson S, Ward JD. Severe hypoglycaemia and ketoacidosis during routine treatment with an insulin pump. British Medical Journal 291: 371–372, 1985
Koivisto VA, Felig P. Effects of leg exercise on insulin absorption in diabetic patients. New England Journal of Medicine 298: 79–83, 1978
Koivisto VA, Fortney S, Hendler R, Felig P. A rise in ambient temperature augments insulin absorption in diabetic patients. Metabolism 30: 402–405, 1981
Kurtz AB, Matthews JA, Nabarro JDN. Insulin binding antibody: reaction differences with bovine and porcine insulins. Diabetologia 15: 19–22, 1978
Lager I, Attvall S, Blohme G, Smith U. Altered recognition of hypoglycaemic symptoms in Type 1 diabetes during intensified control with continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion. Diabetic Medicine 3: 322–325, 1986
Langan SJ, Deary IJ, Hepburn DA, Frier BM. Cumulative cognitive impairment following recurrent severe hypoglycaemia in adult patients with insulin-treated diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia 34: 37–344, 1991
Lawrence RD. Insulin hypoglycaemia: changes in nervous manifestations. Lancet 2: 602, 1941
Lawrence RD, Meyer A, Nevin S. The pathological changes in the brain in fatal hypoglycaemia. Quarterly Journal of Medicine 11: 181–201, 1942
Le Compte PM, Steinke J, Soeldner JS, Renold AE. Changes in the islets of Langerhans in cows injected with heterologous and homologous insulin. Diabetes 15: 586–596, 1966
Linde B. Dissociation of insulin absorption and blood flow during massage of a subcutaneous injection site. Diabetes Care 9: 570–574, 1986
Maddock S, Trimble H. Prolonged insulin hypoglycemia without symptoms. Journal of the American Medical Association 91: 616–621, 1928
Mann NP, Johnston DI, Reeves WG, Murphy MA. Human insulin and porcine insulin in the treatment of diabetic children: comparison of metabolic control and insulin antibody production. British Medical Journal 287: 1580–1582, 1983
Maran A, Macdonald IA, Gale EAM, Amiel SA. Human insulin does not affect the presentation of hypoglycaemia in Type 1 diabetes: a clinical and laboratory study. Abstract no. A40. Diabetic Medicine 9(Suppl. 1): 11 A, 1992
Mathias CJ, Frankel HL, Turner RC, Christensen NJ. Physiologic responses to insulin hypoglycemia in spinal man. Paraplegia 17: 319–326, 1979
Matthew G, Fleming MD, Stewart IS. Cutaneous insulin reaction resembling acanthosis nigricans. Archives of Dermatology 122: 1054–1056, 1986
Matthews DM, Patrick AW, Collier A, Kellett HA, Macintyre CCA, et al. Awareness and use of glucagon amongst insulin treated diabetics. British Medical Journal 293: 367–368, 1986
Mecklenburg RS, Benson EA, Benson JW, Fredlund PN, Guinn T, et al. Acute complicates associated with insulin infusion pump therapy: reports of experience with 161 patients. Journal of the American Medical Association 252: 3265–3269, 1984
Mikratou A, Ryan C, Veneman T, Mokan M, Jenssen T, et al. Hierarchy of glycemic thresholds for counterregulatory hormone secretion, symptoms, and cerebral dysfunction. American Journal of Physiology 260: E67–E74, 1990
Mühlhauser I, Berger M, Sonnenberg D, Koch J, Jorgens V, et al. Incidence and management of severe hypoglycemia in 434 adults with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 8: 274–278, 1985a
Mühlhauser I, Koch J, Berger M. Pharmacokinetics and bioavailability of injected glucagon: differences between intra-muscular, subcutaneous and intravenous administration. Diabetes Care 8: 39–42, 1985b
Murray DP, Keenan P, Gayre E, Salmon P, Tompkin GH, et al. A randomized trial of the efficacy and acceptability of a pen injector. Diabetic Medicine 5: 570–574, 1988
Owens DR, Jones IR, Birtwell AJ, Burge CTR, Luzio S, et al. Study of porcine and human isophane insulin in normal subjects. Diabetologia 26: 261–265, 1984
Owens DR, Vora JP, Tronier B, Keller U, Luzio S, et al. Hormonal counterregulatory responses to human (semisynthetic and recombinant DNA) and porcine insulin induced hypoglycaemia. Diabetes Research 8: 17–20, 1988
Patrick AW, Bodmer CW, Tieszen KL, White MC, Williams G. Human insulin and awareness of acute hypoglycaemic symptoms in insulindependent diabetes. Lancet 338: 528–532, 1991
Patrick AW, Campbell IW. Fatal hypoglycaemia in insulin-treated diabetes mellitus: clinical features and neuropathological changes. Diabetic Medicine 7: 349–354, 1990
Patrick AW, Collier A, Hepburn DA, Steedman DJ, Clarke BF, et al. Comparison of intramuscular glucagon and intravenous dextrose in the treatment of hypoglycaemic coma in an accident and emergency department. Archives of Emergency Medicine 7: 73–77, 1990
Peacock I, Tattersall RD, Taylor A, Douglas CA, Reeves WG. Effects of new insulins on insulin and C-peptide antibodies, insulin dose and diabetic control. Lancet 1: 149–152, 1983
Perriello G, De Feo P, Torlone E, Calcinara F, Ventura MM, et al. Asymptomatic nocturnal hypoglycemia: a cause for deterioration of glycemic control in diabetes mellitus. New England Journal of Medicine 319: 1233–1239, 1988
Perriello G, De Feo P, Torlone E, Fanelli Santeusanio F, et al. Nocturnal spikes of growth hormone secretion cause the dawn phenomenon in Type 1 diabetes mellitus by decreasing hepatic (and extrahepatic) sensitivity to insulin in the absence of insulin waning. Diabetologia 33: 52–59, 1990
Pickup JC, Bilous RW, Viberti GC, Keen H, Jarrett RJ, et al. Plasma insulin and C-peptide after subcutaneous and intravenous administration of human insulin (recombinant DNA) and purified porcine insulin in healthy men. Diabetes Care 5(Suppl. 2): 29–34, 1982
Polonsky KS, Bergenstal RM, Pons G, Schneider M, Jaspan JB, et al. Relation of counterregulatory responses to hypoglycemia in type 1 diabetics. New England Journal of Medicine 307: 1106–1112, 1982
Polonsky KS, Herold Kgilden JL, Bergenstal RM, Fang VS, et al. Glucose counterregulation in patients after pancreatectomy: comparison with other forms of diabetes. Diabetes 33: 1112–1119, 1984
Potter J, Clarke P, Gale EAM, Dave SH, Tattersall RB. Insulin induced hypoglycaemia in an accident and emergency department: the tip of the iceberg. British Medical Journal 285: 1180–1182, 1982
Pramming S, Thorsteinsson B, Bendtson I, Binder C. Symptomatic hypoglycaemia in 411 Type 1 diabetic patients. Diabetic Medicine 8: 217–222, 1991
Pramming S, Thorsteinsson B, Bendtson I, Ronn B, Binder C. Nocturnal hypoglycaemia in patients receiving conventional treatment with insulin. British Medical Journal 291: 376–379, 1985
Pramming S, Thorsteinsson B, Theilgaard A, Pinner EM, Binder Cognitive function during hypoglycaemia in Type 1 diabetes. British Medical Journal 292: 647–650, 1986
Reeves WG, Allen BR, Tattersall RB. Insulin-induced lipoatrophy: evidence for an immune pathogenesis. British Medical Journal 280: 1500–1503, 1980
Rovet JF, Ehrlich RM, Hoppe M. Specific intellectual deficits in children with early onset diabetes mellitus. Child Development 59: 226–234, 1988
Ryder REJ, Owens DR, Hayes TM, Ghatei MA, Bloom SR. Unawareness of hypoglycaemia and inadequate hypoglycaemic counterregulation: no causal relation with diabetic autonomic neuropathy. British Medical Journal 301: 783–787, 1990
Sane T, Helve E, Pelkonen R, Koivisto VA. The adjustment of diet and insulin dose during long-term endurance exercise in Type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetic men. Diabetologia 31: 35–40, 1988
Schluter KJ, Petersen K-G, Sontheimer J, Enzmann F, Kerp L. Different counter-regulatory responses to human insulin (recombinant DNA) and purified pork insulin. Diabetes Care 5(Suppl. 2): 78–81, 1982
Schwartz NS, Clutter WE, Shah SD, Cryer PE. Glycemic thresholds for activation of glucose counterregulatory systems are higher than the threshold for symptoms. Journal of Clinical Investigation 79: 777–781, 1987
Shipp JC, Delcher HK, Munroe JF. Treatment of insulin hypoglycemia in diabetic campers: a comparison of glucagon (1 and 2 mg) and glucose. Diabetes 13: 645–648, 1964
Simonson DC, Tamborlane WV, DeFronzo RA, Sherwin RS. Intensive insulin therapy reduces counter-regulatory hormone responses to hypoglycemia in patients with Type 1 diabetes. Annals of Internal Medicine 103: 184–190, 1985
Slama G, Alamowitch C, Desplanque N, Letanoux M, Zirinis P. A new non-invasive method for treating insulin-reaction: intra nasal lyophylised glucagon. Diabetologia 33: 671–674, 1990b
Slama G, Traynard PY, Desplanque N, Pudar H, Dhunputh I, et al. The search for an optimized treatment of hypoglycaemia. Carbohydrates in tablets, solution, or gel for the correction of insulin reactions. Archives of Internal Medicine 150: 589–593, 1990a
Smith U, Blohme G, Lager I, Lonroth P. Can insulin-treated diabetics be given beta-adrenergic blocking drugs? British Medical Journal 281: 1143–1144, 1980
Soltesz G, Acsadi G. Association between diabetes, severe hypoglycaemia, and electroencephalographic abnormalities. Archives of Disease in Childhood 64: 992–996, 1989
Steel JM, Allwinkle J, Moffat R, Carrington DJ. Use of Lucozade and glucagon by ambulance staff for treating hypoglycaemia. British Medical Journal 304: 1283–1284, 1992
Sussman KE, Crout JR, Marble A. Failure of warning in insulin-induced hypoglycemie reactions. Diabetes 12: 38–45, 1963
Susstrunk H, Morell B, Ziegler WH, Froesch ER. Insulin absorption from the abdomen and thigh in healthy subjects during rest and exercise: blood glucose, plasma insulin, growth hormone, adrenaline and noradrenaline levels. Diabetologia 22: 171–174, 1982
Tattersall RB, Gill GV. Unexplained deaths of Type 1 diabetic patients. Diabetic Medicine 8: 49–58, 1991
Teuscher A, Berger WG. Hypoglycaemia unawareness in diabetics transferred from beef/porcine to human insulin. Lancet 2: 382–385, 1987
Thorsteinsson B, Pramming S, Lauritzen T, Binder Frequency of daytime biochemical hypoglycaemia in insulin-treated diabetic patients: relation to daily mean blood glucose concentrations. Diabetic Medicine 3: 147–151, 1986
Tunbridge WMG. Factors contributing to deaths of diabetics under 50 years. Lancet 2: 569–572, 1981
Whincup G, Milner RDG. Prediction and management of nocturnal hypoglycaemia in diabetes. Archives of Disease in Childhood 62: 333–337, 1987
White NH, Skor DA, Cryer PE, Levandoski LA, Bier DM, et al. Identification of type 1 diabetic patients at increased risk for hypoglycemia during intensive therapy. New England Journal of Medicine 308: 485–491, 1983
Widom B, Simonson DC. Glycemie control and neuropsychologic function during hypoglycemia in patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Annals of Internal Medicine 112: 904–912, 1990
Williams JR. A clinical study of the effects of insulin in severe diabetes. Journal of Metabolic Research 2: 729–751, 1922
Wright AD, Walsh CH, Fitzgerald MG, Malins JM. Very pure porcine insulin in clinical practice. British Medical Journal 1: 25–27, 1979
Young RJ, Hannan WJ, Frier BM, Steel JM, Duncan LJP. Diabetic lipohypertrophy delays insulin absorption. Diabetes Care 7: 479–480, 1984
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Patrick, A.W., Williams, G. Adverse Effects of Exogenous Insulin. Drug-Safety 8, 427–444 (1993). https://doi.org/10.2165/00002018-199308060-00004
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00002018-199308060-00004