Sports Medicine

, Volume 32, Issue 1, pp 53–73 | Cite as

The Scientific Basis for High-Intensity Interval Training

Optimising Training Programmes and Maximising Performance in Highly Trained Endurance Athletes
Review Article
First Online:

Abstract

While the physiological adaptations that occur following endurance training in previously sedentary and recreationally active individuals are relatively well understood, the adaptations to training in already highly trained endurance athletes remain unclear. While significant improvements in endurance performance and corresponding physiological markers are evident following submaximal endurance training in sedentary and recreationally active groups, an additional increase in submaximal training (i.e. volume) in highly trained individuals does not appear to further enhance either endurance performance or associated physiological variables [e.g. peak oxygen uptake (V̇O2peak), oxidative enzyme activity]. It seems that, for athletes who are already trained, improvements in endurance performance can be achieved only through high-intensity interval training (HIT). The limited research which has examined changes in muscle enzyme activity in highly trained athletes, following HIT, has revealed no change in oxidative or glycolytic enzyme activity, despite significant improvements in endurance performance (p < 0.05). Instead, an increase in skeletal muscle buffering capacity may be one mechanism responsible for an improvement in endurance performance. Changes in plasma volume, stroke volume, as well as muscle cation pumps, myoglobin, capillary density and fibre type characteristics have yet to be investigated in response to HIT with the highly trained athlete. Information relating to HIT programme optimisation in endurance athletes is also very sparse. Preliminary work using the velocity at whichV̇O2max is achieved (Vmax) as the interval intensity, and fractions (50 to 75%) of the time to exhaustion at Vmax (Tmax) as the interval duration has been successful in eliciting improvements in performance in long-distance runners. However, Vmax and Tmax have not been used with cyclists. Instead, HIT programme optimisation research in cyclists has revealed that repeated supramaximal sprinting may be equally effective as more traditional HIT programmes for eliciting improvements in endurance performance. Further examination of the biochemical and physiological adaptations which accompany different HIT programmes, as well as investigation into the optimal HIT programme for eliciting performance enhancements in highly trained athletes is required.

Keywords

Endurance Performance Endurance Training Trained Athlete Untrained Individual Oxidative Enzyme Activity 
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access

Notes

Acknowledgments

The authors have no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. 1.
    Hawley JA, Myburgh KH, Noakes TD, et al. Training techniques to improve fatigue resistance and enhance endurance performance. J Sports Sci 1997; 15: 325–33PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  2. 2.
    Wells CL, Pate RR. Training for performance of prolonged exercise. Carmel (IN): Benchmark Press, 1988Google Scholar
  3. 3.
    Jones AM, Carter H. The effect of endurance training on parameters of aerobic fitness. Sports Med 2000; 29: 373–86PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  4. 4.
    Laursen PB, Rhodes EC. Factors affecting performance in an ultraendurance triathlon. Sports Med 2001; 31: 195–209PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  5. 5.
    Blomqvist CG, Saltin B. Cardiovascular adaptations to physical training. Annu Rev Physiol 1983; 45: 169–89PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  6. 6.
    Green HJ, Jones LL, Painter DC. Effects of short-term training on cardiac function during prolonged exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1990; 22: 488–93PubMedGoogle Scholar
  7. 7.
    Weston AR, Myburgh KH, Lindsay FH, et al. Skeletal muscle buffering capacity and endurance performance after high-intensity training by well-trained cyclists. Eur J Appl Physiol 1997; 75: 7–13CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  8. 8.
    Londeree BR. Effect of training on lactate/ventilatory thresholds: a meta-analysis. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1997; 29: 837–43PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  9. 9.
    Costill DL, Flynn MG, Kirman JP, et al. Effects of repeated days of intensified training on muscle glycogen and swimming performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1988; 20: 249–54PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  10. 10.
    Lake MJ, Cavanagh PR. Six weeks of training does not change running mechanics or improve running economy. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1996; 28: 860–9PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  11. 11.
    Green HJ. Altitude acclimatization, training and performance. J Sci Med Sport 2000; 3: 299–312PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  12. 12.
    Coyle EF. Physical activity as a metabolic stressor. Am J Clin Nutr 2000; 72 (2 Suppl.): 512S-20SGoogle Scholar
  13. 13.
    Green HJ, Jones LL, Hughson RL, et al. Training-induced hypervolemia: lack of an effect on oxygen utilization during exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1987; 19: 202–6PubMedGoogle Scholar
  14. 14.
    Green HJ, Hughson RL, Thomson JA, et al. Supramaximal exercise after training-induced hypervolemia. I: gas exchange and acid-base balance. J Appl Physiol 1987; 62: 1944–53PubMedGoogle Scholar
  15. 15.
    Green HJ, Thomson JA, Houston ME. Supramaximal exercise after training-induced hypervolemia. II: blood/muscle substrates and metabolites. J Appl Physiol 1987; 62: 1954–61PubMedGoogle Scholar
  16. 16.
    Green HJ, Coates G, Sutton JR, et al. Early adaptations in gas exchange, cardiac function and haematology to prolonged exercise training in man. Eur J Appl Physiol 1991; 63: 17–23CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  17. 17.
    Green HJ, Jones LL, Houston ME, et al. Muscle energetics during prolonged cycling after exercise hypervolemia. J Appl Physiol 1989; 66: 622–31PubMedGoogle Scholar
  18. 18.
    Green HJ. Muscular adaptations at extreme altitude: metabolic implications during exercise. Int J Sports Med 1992; 13 Suppl. 1: S163–5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  19. 19.
    Green HJ, Helyar R, Ball-Burnett M, et al. Metabolic adaptations to training precede changes in muscle mitochondrial capacity. J Appl Physiol 1992; 72: 484–91PubMedGoogle Scholar
  20. 20.
    Green HJ, Jones S, Ball-Burnett M, et al. Early adaptations in blood substrates, metabolites, and hormones to prolonged exercise training in man. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 1991; 69: 1222–9PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  21. 21.
    Rowell AL. Human cardiovascular control. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993Google Scholar
  22. 22.
    Fritzsche RG, Coyle EF. Cutaneous blood flow during exercise is higher in endurance-trained humans. J Appl Physiol 2000; 88: 738–44PubMedGoogle Scholar
  23. 23.
    Coyle EF. Physiological determinants of endurance exercise performance. J Sci Med Sport 1999; 2: 181–9PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  24. 24.
    McKenzie S, Phillips SM, Carter SL, et al. Endurance exercise training attenuates leucine oxidation and BCOAD activation during exercise in humans. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2000; 278: E580–7Google Scholar
  25. 25.
    Hickson RC, Hagberg JM, Ehsani AA, et al. Time course of the adaptive responses of aerobic power and heart rate to training. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1981; 13: 17–20PubMedGoogle Scholar
  26. 26.
    Vock R, Hoppeler H, Claassen H, et al. Design of the oxygen and substrate pathways. VI: structural basis of intracellular substrate supply to mitochondria in muscle cells. J Exp Biol 1996; 199: 1689–97PubMedGoogle Scholar
  27. 27.
    Weibel ER, Taylor CR, Weber JM, et al. Design of the oxygen and substrate pathways. VII: different structural limits for oxygen and substrate supply to muscle mitochondria. J Exp Biol 1996; 199: 1699–709PubMedGoogle Scholar
  28. 28.
    Hoppeler H, Weibel ER. Limits for oxygen and substrate transport in mammals. J Exp Biol 1998; 201: 1051–64PubMedGoogle Scholar
  29. 29.
    Hoppeler H, Weibel ER. Structural and functional limits for oxygen supply to muscle. Acta Physiol Scand 2000; 168: 445–56PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  30. 30.
    Coggan AR, Raguso CA, Williams BD, et al. Glucose kinetics during high-intensity exercise in endurance-trained and untrained humans. J Appl Physiol 1995; 78: 1203–7PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  31. 31.
    Coggan AR, Kohrt WM, Spina RJ, et al. Endurance training decreases plasma glucose turnover and oxidation during moderate-intensity exercise in men. J Appl Physiol 1990; 68: 990–6PubMedGoogle Scholar
  32. 32.
    Coggan AR. Plasma glucose metabolism during exercise: effect of endurance training in humans. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1997; 29: 620–7PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  33. 33.
    Karlsson J, Nordesjo LO, Saltin B. Muscle glycogen utilization during exercise after physical training. Acta Physiol Scand 1974; 90: 210–7PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  34. 34.
    Martin WH 3rd, Dalsky GP, Hurley BF, et al. Effect of endurance training on plasma free fatty acid turnover and oxidation during exercise. Am J Physiol 1993; 265: E708–14Google Scholar
  35. 35.
    Hurley BF, Hagberg JM, Allen WK, et al. Effect of training on blood lactate levels during submaximal exercise. J Appl Physiol 1984; 56: 1260–4PubMedGoogle Scholar
  36. 36.
    Shoemaker JK, Phillips SM, Green HJ, et al. Faster femoral artery blood velocity kinetics at the onset of exercise following short-term training. Cardiovasc Res 1996; 31: 278–86PubMedGoogle Scholar
  37. 37.
    Green H, Grant S, Bombardier E, et al. Initial aerobic power does not alter muscle metabolic adaptations to short-term training. Am J Physiol 1999; 277: E39–48Google Scholar
  38. 38.
    Daniels JT, Yarbrough RA, Foster C. Changes in V̇O2max and running performance with training. Eur J Appl Physiol 1978; 39: 249–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  39. 39.
    Henriksson J. Effects of physical training on the metabolism of skeletal muscle. Diabetes Care 1992; 15: 1701–11PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  40. 40.
    Denis C, Fouquet R, Poty P, et al. Effect of 40 weeks of endurance training on the anaerobic threshold. Int J Sports Med 1982; 3: 208–14PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  41. 41.
    Hardman AE, Williams C, Wootton SA. The influence of short term endurance training on maximum oxygen uptake, submaximum endurance and the ability to perform brief, maximal exercise. J Sports Sci 1986; 4: 109–16PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  42. 42.
    Ekblom B. Effect of physical training on oxygen transport system in man. Acta Physiol Scand 1969; 328 Suppl.: 1045Google Scholar
  43. 43.
    Hickson RC, Bomze HA, Holloszy JO. Linear increase in aerobic power induced by a strenuous program of endurance exercise. J Appl Physiol 1977; 42: 372–6PubMedGoogle Scholar
  44. 44.
    Daniels J, Scardina N. Interval training and performance. Sports Med 1984; 1: 327–34PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  45. 45.
    Billat LV. Interval training for performance: a scientific and empirical practice. Part II: anaerobic interval training. Sports Med 2001; 31: 75–90PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  46. 46.
    Green H, Tupling R, Roy B, et al. Adaptations in skeletal muscle exercise metabolism to a sustained session of heavy intermittent exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2000; 278: E118–26Google Scholar
  47. 47.
    Green HJ, Fraser IG. Differential effects of exercise intensity on serumuric acid concentration. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1988; 20: 55–9PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  48. 48.
    Keith SP, Jacobs I, McLellan TM. Adaptations to training at the individual anaerobic threshold. Eur J Appl Physiol 1992; 65: 316–23CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  49. 49.
    Burke J, Thayer R, Belcamino M. Comparison of effects of two interval-training programmes on lactate and ventilatory thresholds. Br J Sports Med 1994; 28: 18–21PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  50. 50.
    Simoneau JA, Lortie G, Boulay MR, et al. Human skeletal muscle fiber type alteration with high-intensity intermittent training. Eur J Appl Physiol 1985; 54: 250–3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  51. 51.
    Rodas G, Ventura JL, Cadefau JA, et al. A short training programme for the rapid improvement of both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism. Eur J Appl Physiol 2000; 82: 480–6PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  52. 52.
    Parra J, Cadefau JA, Rodas G, et al. The distribution of rest periods affects performance and adaptations of energy metabolism induced by high-intensity training in human muscle. Acta Physiol Scand 2000; 169: 157–65PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  53. 53.
    MacDougall JD, Hicks AL, MacDonald JR, et al. Muscle performance and enzymatic adaptations to sprint interval training. J Appl Physiol 1998; 84: 2138–42PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  54. 54.
    Linossier MT, Dennis C, Dormois D, et al. Ergometric and metabolic adaptation to a 5-s sprint training programme. Eur J Appl Physiol 1993; 67: 408–14CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  55. 55.
    Simoneau JA, Lortie G, Boulay MR, et al. Effects of two high-intensity intermittent training programs interspaced by detraining on human skeletal muscle and performance. Eur J Appl Physiol 1987; 56: 516–21CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  56. 56.
    Henritze J, Weltman A, Schurrer RL, et al. Effects of training at and above the lactate threshold on the lactate threshold and maximal oxygen uptake. Eur J Appl Physiol 1985; 54: 84–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  57. 57.
    Nevill ME, Boobis LH, Brooks S, et al. Effect of training on muscle metabolism during treadmill sprinting. J Appl Physiol 1989; 67: 2376–82PubMedGoogle Scholar
  58. 58.
    Tabata I, Nishimura K, Kouzaki M, et al. Effects of moderate-intensity endurance and high-intensity intermittent training on anaerobic capacity and V̇O2max. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1996; 28: 1327–30PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  59. 59.
    Ray CA. Sympathetic adaptations to one-legged training. J Appl Physiol 1999; 86: 1583–7PubMedGoogle Scholar
  60. 60.
    Harmer AR, McKenna MJ, Sutton JR, et al. Skeletal muscle metabolic and ionic adaptations during intense exercise following sprint training in humans. J Appl Physiol 2000; 89: 1793–803PubMedGoogle Scholar
  61. 61.
    Essen B, Hagenfeldt L, Kaijser L. Utilization of blood-borne and intramuscular substrates during continuous and intermittent exercise in man. J Physiol 1977; 265: 489–506PubMedGoogle Scholar
  62. 62.
    Chilibeck PD, Bell GJ, Farrar RP, et al. Higher mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation following intermittent versus continuous endurance exercise training. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 1998; 76: 891–4PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  63. 63.
    Gorostiaga EM, Walter CB, Foster C, et al. Uniqueness of interval and continuous training at the same maintained exercise intensity. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1991; 63: 101–7PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  64. 64.
    Franch J, Madsen K, Djurhuus MS, et al. Improved running economy following intensified training correlates with reduced ventilatory demands. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1998; 30: 1250–6PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  65. 65.
    Coetzer P, Noakes TD, Sanders B, et al. Superior fatigue resistance of elite black South African distance runners. J Appl Physiol 1993; 75: 1822–7PubMedGoogle Scholar
  66. 66.
    Billat V, Renoux JC, Pinoteau J, et al. Times to exhaustion at 90, 100 and 105% of velocity at V̇O2max (maximal aerobic speed) and critical speed in elite long-distance runners. Arch Physiol Biochem 1995; 103: 129–35PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  67. 67.
    Holloszy JO, Booth FW. Biochemical adaptations to endurance exercise in muscle. Annu Rev Physiol 1976; 38: 273–91PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  68. 68.
    Holloszy JO, Coyle EF. Adaptations of skeletal muscle to endurance exercise and their metabolic consequences. J Appl Physiol 1984; 56: 831–8PubMedGoogle Scholar
  69. 69.
    Gaitanos GC, Williams C, Boobis LH, et al. Human muscle metabolism during intermittent maximal exercise. J Appl Physiol 1993; 75: 712–9PubMedGoogle Scholar
  70. 70.
    Medbo JI, Mohn AC, Tabata I, et al. Anaerobic capacity determined by maximal accumulated O2 deficit. J Appl Physiol 1988; 64: 50–60PubMedGoogle Scholar
  71. 71.
    Henriksson J, Reitman JS. Time course of changes in human skeletal muscle succinate dehydrogenase and cytochrome oxidase activities and maximal oxygen uptake with physical activity and inactivity. Acta Physiol Scand 1977; 99: 91–7PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  72. 72.
    Phillips SM, Green HJ, Tarnopolsky MA, et al. Effects of training duration on substrate turnover and oxidation during exercise. J Appl Physiol 1996; 81: 2182–91PubMedGoogle Scholar
  73. 73.
    Phillips SM, Green HJ, Tarnopolsky MA, et al. Progressive effect of endurance training on metabolic adaptations in working skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol 1996; 270: E265–72Google Scholar
  74. 74.
    Acevedo EO, Goldfarb AH. Increased training intensity effects on plasma lactate, ventilatory threshold, and endurance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1989; 21: 563–8PubMedGoogle Scholar
  75. 75.
    Collins MH, Pearsall DJ, Zavorsky GS, et al. Acute effects of intense interval training on running mechanics. J Sports Sci 2000; 18: 83–90PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  76. 76.
    James DV, Doust JH. Oxygen uptake during moderate intensity running: response following a single bout of interval training. Eur J Appl Physiol 1998; 77: 551–5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  77. 77.
    James DV, Doust JH. Oxygen uptake during high-intensity running: response following a single bout of interval training. Eur J Appl Physiol 1999; 79: 237–43CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  78. 78.
    Billat VL, Flechet B, Petit B, et al. Interval training at V̇O2max: effects on aerobic performance and overtraining markers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1999; 31: 156–63PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  79. 79.
    Babineau C, Leger L. Physiological response of 5/1 intermittent aerobic exercise and its relationship to 5 km endurance performance. Int J Sports Med 1997; 18: 13–9PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  80. 80.
    Westgarth-Taylor C, Hawley JA, Rickard S, et al. Metabolic and performance adaptations to interval training in endurance trained cyclists. Eur J Appl Physiol 1997; 75: 298–304CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  81. 81.
    Stepto NK, Hawley JA, Dennis SC, et al. Effects of different interval-training programs on cycling time-trial performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1998; 31: 736–41Google Scholar
  82. 82.
    Laursen PB, Blanchard MA, Jenkins DG. Acute high-intensity interval training improves Tvent and PPO in highly trained males. Can J Appl Physiol. In pressGoogle Scholar
  83. 83.
    Lindsay FH, Hawley JA, Myburgh KH, et al. Improved athletic performance in highly trained cyclists after interval training. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1996; 28: 1427–34PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  84. 84.
    Gaskill SE, Serfass RC, Bacharach DW, et al. Responses to training in cross-country skiers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1999; 31: 1211–7PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  85. 85.
    Stepto NK, Martin DT, Fallon KE, et al. Metabolic demands of intense aerobic interval training in competitive cyclists. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001; 33: 303–10PubMedGoogle Scholar
  86. 86.
    Smith TP, McNaughton LR, Marshall KJ. Effects of 4-wk training using Vmax/Tmax on V̇O2max and performance in athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1999; 31: 892–6PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  87. 87.
    Smith TP, Dilger J, Davoren B, et al. Optimising high intensity treadmill training using V̇O2max and Tmax. Pre-Olympic Congress; 2000 Sep 7–13; Brisbane 2000Google Scholar
  88. 88.
    Zavorsky GS, Montgomery DL, Pearsall DJ. Effect of intense interval workouts on running economy using three recovery durations. Eur J Appl Physiol 1998; 77: 224–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  89. 89.
    Hickey MS, Costill DL, McConell GK, et al. Day to day variation in time trial cycling performance. Int J Sports Med 1992; 13: 467–70PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  90. 90.
    Gleser MA, Vogel JA. Endurance exercise: effect of work-rest schedules and repeated testing. J Appl Physiol 1971; 31: 735–9PubMedGoogle Scholar
  91. 91.
    Zavorsky GS. Evidence and possible mechanisms of altered maximum heart rate with endurance training and tapering. Sports Med 2000; 29: 13–26PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  92. 92.
    Convertino VA. Blood volume: its adaptation to endurance training. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1991; 23: 1338–48PubMedGoogle Scholar
  93. 93.
    Sawka MN, Convertino VA, Eichner ER, et al. Blood volume: importance and adaptations to exercise training, environmental stresses, and trauma/sickness. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32: 332–48PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  94. 94.
    Coyle EF, Hopper MK, Coggan AR. Maximal oxygen uptake relative to plasma volume expansion. Int J Sports Med 1990; 11: 116–9PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  95. 95.
    Convertino VA, Brock PJ, Keil LC, et al. Exercise training-induced hypervolemia: role of plasma albumin, renin, and vasopressin. J Appl Physiol 1980; 48: 665–9PubMedGoogle Scholar
  96. 96.
    Hopper MK, Coggan AR, Coyle EF. Exercise stroke volume relative to plasma-volume expansion. J Appl Physiol 1988; 64: 404–8PubMedGoogle Scholar
  97. 97.
    Pandolf KB. Effects of physical training and cardiorespiratory physical fitness on exercise-heat tolerance: recent observations. Med Sci Sports 1979; 11: 60–5PubMedGoogle Scholar
  98. 98.
    Hargreaves M, Febbraio M. Limits to exercise performance in the heat. Int J Sports Med 1998; 19 Suppl. 2: S115–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  99. 99.
    Convertino VA, Greenleaf JE, Bernauer EM. Role of thermal and exercise factors in the mechanism of hypervolemia. J Appl Physiol 1980; 48: 657–64PubMedGoogle Scholar
  100. 100.
    Nielsen B, Hales JR, Strange S, et al. Human circulatory and thermoregulatory adaptations with heat acclimation and exercise in a hot, dry environment. J Physiol 1993; 460: 467–85PubMedGoogle Scholar
  101. 101.
    Gonzalez-Alonso J, Teller C, Andersen SL, et al. Influence of body temperature on the development of fatigue during prolonged exercise in the heat. J Appl Physiol 1999; 86: 1032–9PubMedGoogle Scholar
  102. 102.
    Armstrong LE, Maresh CM. Effects of training, environment, and hot factors on the sweating response to exercise. Int J Sports Med 1998; 19 Suppl. 2: S103–5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  103. 103.
    Gisolfi CV. Work-heat tolerance derived from interval training. J Appl Physiol 1973; 35: 349–54PubMedGoogle Scholar
  104. 104.
    Billat LV. Interval training for performance: a scientific and empirical practice. Part I: aerobic interval training. Sports Med 2001; 31: 13–31PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  105. 105.
    Shepley B, MacDougall JD, Cipriano N, et al. Physiological effects of tapering in highly trained athletes. J Appl Physiol 1992; 72: 706–11PubMedGoogle Scholar
  106. 106.
    Tabata I, Irisawa K, Kouzaki M, et al. Metabolic profile of high intensity intermittent exercises. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1997; 29: 390–5PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  107. 107.
    Coyle EC, Coggan AR, Hopper MK, et al. Determinants of endurance in well-trained cyclists. J Appl Physiol 1988; 64: 2622–30PubMedGoogle Scholar
  108. 108.
    Linossier MT, Dormois D, Bregere P, et al. Effect of sodium citrate on performance and metabolism of human skeletal muscle during supramaximal cycling exercise. Eur JAppl Physiol Occup Physiol 1997; 76: 48–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  109. 109.
    McKenna MJ, Harmer AR, Fraser SF, et al. Effects of training on potassium, calcium and hydrogen ion regulation in skeletal muscle and blood during exercise. Acta Physiol Scand 1996; 156: 335–46PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  110. 110.
    Potteiger JA, Nickel GL, Webster MJ, et al. Sodium citrate ingestion enhances 30 km cycling performance. Int J Sports Med 1996; 17: 7–11PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  111. 111.
    Spriet LL. Anaerobic metabolism during high-intensity exercise. In: Hargreaves M, editor. Exercise metabolism. Champaign (IL): Human Kinetics Publishers Inc., 1995: 1–40Google Scholar
  112. 112.
    Green HJ. Cation pumps in skeletal muscle: potential role in muscle fatigue. Acta Physiol Scand 1998; 162: 201–13PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  113. 113.
    Green HJ, Grange F, Chin C, et al. Exercise-induced decreases in sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+)-ATPase activity attenuated by high-resistance training. Acta Physiol Scand 1998; 164: 141–6PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  114. 114.
    Green H, MacDougall J, Tarnopolsky M, et al. Down regulation of Na+-K+-ATPase pumps in skeletal muscle with training in normobaric hypoxia. J Appl Physiol 1999; 86: 1745–8PubMedGoogle Scholar
  115. 115.
    Green H, Roy B, Grant S, et al. Downregulation in muscle Na+-K+-ATPase following a 21-day expedition to 6,194 m. J Appl Physiol 2000; 88: 634–40PubMedGoogle Scholar
  116. 116.
    Green H, Roy B, Grant S, et al. Effects of a 21-day expedition to 6,194 m on human skeletal muscle SR Ca2+-ATPase. High Alt Med Biol 2000; 1: 301–10PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  117. 117.
    Green HJ, Roy B, Grant S, et al. Increases in submaximal cycling efficiency mediated by altitude acclimatization. J Appl Physiol 2000; 89: 1189–97PubMedGoogle Scholar
  118. 118.
    MacDonald MJ, Green HJ, Naylor HL, et al. Reduced oxygen uptake during steady state exercise after 21-daymountain climbing expedition to 6,194 m. Can J Appl Physiol 2001; 26: 143–56PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  119. 119.
    Laursen PB, Rhodes EC, Langhill RH. Exercise induced hypoxemia (EIH): a review of proposed mechanisms and recent findings. Biol Sport 2001; 18: 87–105Google Scholar
  120. 120.
    Medbo JI, Tabata I. Relative importance of aerobic and anaerobic energy release during short-lasting exhausting bicycle exercise. J Appl Physiol 1989; 67: 1881–6PubMedGoogle Scholar
  121. 121.
    Neufer PD, Ordway GA, Williams RS. Transient regulation of c-fos, alpha B-crystallin, and hsp70 in muscle during recovery from contractile activity. Am J Physiol 1998; 274: C341–6Google Scholar
  122. 122.
    Goodman C, Henry G, Dawson B, et al. Biochemical and ultra-structural indices of muscle damage after a twenty-one kilometre run. Aust J Sci Med Sport 1997; 29: 95–8PubMedGoogle Scholar
  123. 123.
    Kyrolainen H, Takala TE, Komi PV. Muscle damage induced by stretch-shortening cycle exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1998; 30: 415–20PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  124. 124.
    Kim CK, Takala TE, Seger J, et al. Training effects of electrically induced dynamic contractions in human quadriceps muscle. Aviat Space Environ Med 1995; 66: 251–5PubMedGoogle Scholar
  125. 125.
    Billat VL, Slawinski J, Bocquet V, et al. Intermittent runs at the velocity associated with maximal oxygen uptake enables subjects to remain at maximal oxygen uptake for a longer time than intense but submaximal runs. Eur J Appl Physiol 2000; 81: 188–96PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  126. 126.
    Astrand I, Astrand PO, Christensen EH. Myohemoglobin as an oxygen-store in man. Acta Physiol Scand 1960; 48: 454–60PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  127. 127.
    Terrados N. Altitude training and muscular metabolism. Int J Sports Med 1992; 13 Suppl 1: S206–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  128. 128.
    Saltin B, Gollnick PD. Skeletal muscle adaptability: significance for metabolism and performance. Baltimore (MD): Williams and Wilkins, 1983Google Scholar
  129. 129.
    Svedenhag J, Henriksson J, Juhlin-Dannfelt A. Beta-adrenergic blockade and training in human subjects: effects on muscle metabolic capacity. Am J Physiol 1984; 247: E305–11Google Scholar
  130. 130.
    Bishop D, Jenkins DG, McEniery M, et al. Relationship between plasma lactate parameters and muscle characteristics in female cyclists. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32: 1088–93PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  131. 131.
    Noakes TD, Myburgh KH, Schall R. Peak treadmill running velocity during the V̇O2max test predicts running performance. J Sports Sci 1990; 8: 35–45PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  132. 132.
    Billat V, Bernard O, Pinoteau J, et al. Time to exhaustion at V̇O2max and lactate steady state velocity in sub elite long-distance runners. Arch Int Physiol Biochim Biophys 1994; 102: 215–9PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  133. 133.
    McLellan TM, Cheung KS. A comparative evaluation of the individual anaerobic threshold and the critical power. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1992; 24: 543–50PubMedGoogle Scholar
  134. 134.
    Davis JA. Anaerobic threshold: review of the concept and directions for future research. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1985; 17: 6–21PubMedGoogle Scholar
  135. 135.
    Billat LV. Use of blood lactate measurements for prediction of exercise performance and for control of training. Recommendations for long-distance running. Sports Med 1996; 22: 157–75PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  136. 136.
    Poole DC, Gaesser GA. Response of ventilatory and lactate thresholds to continuous and interval training. J Appl Physiol 1985; 58: 1115–21PubMedGoogle Scholar
  137. 137.
    Frangolias DD, Rhodes EC. Comparison of the lactate and ventilatory thresholds during prolonged work. Sports Med 1996; 22: 38–53PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  138. 138.
    Feriche B, Chicharro JL, Vaquero AF, et al. The use of a fixed value of RPE during a ramp protocol: comparison with the ventilatory threshold. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1998; 38: 35–8PubMedGoogle Scholar
  139. 139.
    Denis C, Dormois D, Lacour JR. Endurance training, V̇O2max, and OBLA: a longitudinal study of two different age groups. Int J Sports Med 1984; 5: 167–73PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  140. 140.
    Chicharro JL, Carvajal A, Pardo J, et al. Physiological parameters determined at OBLA vs. a fixed heart rate of 175 beats × min-1 in an incremental test performed by amateur and professional cyclists. Jpn J Physiol 1999; 49: 63–9PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  141. 141.
    Billat V, Beillot J, Jan J, et al. Gender effect on the relationship of time limit at 100% V̇O2max with other bioenergetic characteristics. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1996; 28: 1049–55PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  142. 142.
    Jenkins DG, Quigley BM. The y-intercept of the critical power function as a measure of anaerobic work capacity. Ergonomics 1991; 34: 13–22PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  143. 143.
    Jenkins DG, Quigley BM. Blood lactate in trained cyclists during cycle ergometry at critical power. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1990; 61: 278–83PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  144. 144.
    Volkov NI, Shirkovets EA, Borilkevich VE. Assessment of aerobic and anaerobic capacity of athletes in treadmill running tests. Eur J Appl Physiol 1975; 34: 121–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  145. 145.
    Hill DW. The critical power concept: a review. Sports Med 1993; 16: 237–54PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  146. 146.
    Hill DW, Smith JC. Determination of critical power by pulmonary gas exchange. Can J Appl Physiol 1999; 24: 74–86PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  147. 147.
    Smith JC, Dangelmaier BS, Hill DW. Critical power is related to cycling time trial performance. Int J Sports Med 1999; 20: 374–8PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  148. 148.
    Vandewalle H, Vautier JF, Kachouri M, et al. Work-exhaustion time relationships and the critical power concept: a critical review. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1997; 37: 89–102PubMedGoogle Scholar
  149. 149.
    Pepper ML, Housh TJ, Johnson GO. The accuracy of the critical velocity test for predicting time to exhaustion during treadmill running. Int J Sports Med 1992; 13: 121–4PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  150. 150.
    Hill DW, Rowell AL. Responses to exercise at the velocity associated with V̇O2max. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1997; 29: 113–6PubMedGoogle Scholar
  151. 151.
    Hill DW, Rowell AL. Running velocity at V̇O2max. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1996; 28: 114–9PubMedGoogle Scholar
  152. 152.
    Hill DW, Rowell AL. Significance of time to exhaustion during exercise at the velocity associated with V̇O2max. Eur J Appl Physiol 1996; 72: 383–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  153. 153.
    Billat V, Renoux JC, Pinoteau J, et al. Reproducibility of running time to exhaustion at V̇O2max in subelite runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1994; 26: 254–7PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  154. 154.
    Billat V, Renoux JC, Pinoteau J, et al. Times to exhaustion at 100% of velocity at V̇O2max and modelling of the time-limit/velocity relationship in elite long-distance runners. Eur J Appl Physiol 1994; 69: 271–3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  155. 155.
    Billat LV, Koralsztein JP. Significance of the velocity at V̇O2max and time to exhaustion at this velocity. Sports Med 1996; 22: 90–108PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  156. 156.
    Billat VL, Hill DW, Pinoteau J, et al. Effect of protocol on determination of velocity at V̇O2max and on its time to exhaustion. Arch Physiol Biochem 1996; 104: 313–21PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  157. 157.
    Billat VL, Blondel N, Berthoin S. Determination of the velocity associated with the longest time to exhaustion at maximal oxygen uptake. Eur J Appl Physiol 1999; 80: 159–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  158. 158.
    Berthoin S, Pelayo P, Lensel-Corbeil G, et al. Comparison of maximal aerobic speed as assessed with laboratory and field measurements in moderately trained subjects. Int J Sports Med 1996; 17: 525–9PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  159. 159.
    Morgan DW, Baldini FD, Martin PE, et al. Ten kilometer performance and predicted velocity at V̇O2max among well-trained male runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1989; 21: 78–83PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  160. 160.
    Billat VL, Pinoteau J, Petit B. Calibration de la durée des répétitions d’une séance d’interval training à la vitesse associée a V̇O2max en référence au temps limite continu. Sci Motricite 1996; 28: 13–20Google Scholar
  161. 161.
    Basset DR, Howley ET. Limiting factors for maximum oxygen uptake and determinants of endurance performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32: 70–84Google Scholar
  162. 162.
    James DV, Doust JH. Time to exhaustion during severe intensity running: response following a single bout of interval training. Eur J Appl Physiol 2000; 81: 337–45PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  163. 163.
    Noakes TD. The lore of running. Champaign (IL): Leisure Press, 1991Google Scholar
  164. 164.
    Hill DW, Ferguson CS. A physiological description of critical velocity. Eur J Appl Physiol 1999; 79: 290–3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  165. 165.
    Lucia A, Hoyos J, Chicharro JL. The slow component of V̇O2 in professional cyclists. Br J Sports Med 2000; 34: 367–74PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  166. 166.
    Billat VL, Mille-Hamard L, Petit B, et al. The role of cadence on the V̇O2 slow component in cycling and running in tri-athletes. Int J Sports Med 1999; 20: 429–37PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  167. 167.
    Billat V, Binsse V, Petit B, et al. High level runners are able to maintain a V̇O2 steady-state below V̇O2max in an all-out run over their critical velocity. Arch Physiol Biochem 1998; 106: 38–45PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  168. 168.
    Casaburi R, Storer TW, Ben-Dov I, et al. Effect of endurance training on possible determinants of V̇O2 during heavy exercise. J Appl Physiol 1987; 62: 199–207PubMedGoogle Scholar
  169. 169.
    Carter H, Jones AM, Barstow TJ, et al. Effect of endurance training on oxygen uptake kinetics during treadmill running. J Appl Physiol 2000; 89: 1744–52PubMedGoogle Scholar
  170. 170.
    Jenkins DG, Quigley BM. The influence of high-intensity exercise training on the Wlim-Tlim relationship. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1993; 25: 275–82PubMedGoogle Scholar
  171. 171.
    Jenkins DG, Quigley BM. Endurance training enhances critical power. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1992; 24: 1283–9PubMedGoogle Scholar
  172. 172.
    Demarie S, Koralsztein JP, Billat V. Time limit and time at V̇O2max during a continuous and an intermittent run. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2000; 40: 96–102PubMedGoogle Scholar
  173. 173.
    Norris SR, Petersen SR. Effects of endurance training on transient oxygen uptake responses in cyclists. J Sports Sci 1998; 16: 733–8PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  174. 174.
    Billat V, Faina M, Sardella F, et al. A comparison of time to exhaustion at V̇O2max in elite cyclists, kayak paddlers, swimmers and runners. Ergonomics 1996; 39: 267–77PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  175. 175.
    Balsom PD, Seger JY, Sjodin B, et al. Maximal-intensity intermittent exercise: effect of recovery duration. Int J Sports Med 1992; 13: 528–33PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  176. 176.
    Belcastro AN, Bonen A. Lactic acid removal rates during controlled and uncontrolled recovery exercise. J Appl Physiol 1975; 39: 932–6PubMedGoogle Scholar
  177. 177.
    Hermansen L, Stensvold I. Production and removal of lactate during exercise in man. Acta Physiol Scand 1972; 86: 191–201PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  178. 178.
    Oosthuyse T, Carter RN. Plasma lactate decline during passive recovery from high-intensity exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1999; 31: 670–4PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  179. 179.
    Banister EW, Carter JB, Zarkadas PC. Training theory and taper: validation in triathlon athletes. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1999; 79: 182–91PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  180. 180.
    Mujika I, Goya A, Padilla S, et al. Physiological responses to a 6-d taper in middle-distance runners: influence of training intensity and volume. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32: 511–7PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Adis International Limited 2002

Authors and Affiliations

  1. 1.School of Human Movement StudiesUniversity of QueenslandBrisbaneAustralia

Personalised recommendations