Skip to main content
Springer Nature Link
Log in

Assessing salt marsh health: A test of the utility of five potential indicators

  • Published:
Wetlands Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

We examined the utility of five measures of salt marsh function, focusing on angiosperms and microbes, as potential indicators of salt marsh health. We studied twelve salt marsh creeks around Charleston Harbor, South Carolina, USA, six of which were polluted with metals and/or organic compounds and six of which were relatively pristine. Physical variables (sediment clay-silt content, creek water salinity) did not differ between impacted and reference sites. Microtox toxicity measures (expressed as wet or dry units) did not differ between impacted and reference sites. Photosynthesis and transpiration rates of creekbank Spartina alterniflora did not differ between impacted and reference sites, nor did measures of peroxidase activity in S. alterniflora. The glutathione concentration of S. alterniflora was lower at impacted sites than at reference sites; however, glutathione concentration did not respond to pollution in an earlier study in Georgia, likely because glutathione responds differently to particular chemicals rather than being a generic indicator of plant stress. Overall, these measures showed little promise as rapid indicators of salt marsh health. Other methods, such as quantifying benthic invertebrate taxa, may be more reliable for assessing ecosystem health in salt marsh systems.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Explore related subjects

Discover the latest articles and news from researchers in related subjects, suggested using machine learning.

Literature Cited

  • Biggs, R. B., T. B. DeMoss, M. M. Carter, and E. L. Beasley. 1989. Susceptibility of U.S. estuaries to pollution. Aquatic Sciences 1:189–207.

    Google Scholar 

  • Byl, T. D., H. D. Sutton, and S. J. Klaine. 1994. Evaluation of peroxidase as a biochemical indicator of toxic chemical exposure in the aquatic plant Hydrilla verticillata Royale. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 13:509–515.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Burke, D. J., J. S. Weis, and P. Weis. 2000. Release of metals by the leaves of the salt marsh grasses Spartina alterniflora and Phragmites australis. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 51:153–159.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Canfield, T. J., N. E. Kemble, W. G. Grumbaugh, F. J. Dwyer, C. G. Ingersoll, and J. F. Fairchild. 1994. Use of benthic invertebrate community structure and the sediment quality triad to evaluate metal-contaminated sediment in the Upper Clark Fork River, Montana. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 13:1999–2012.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carmen, K. R., J. C. Means, and S. C. Pomarico. 1996. Response of a sedimentary bacteria in a Louisiana saltmarsh to contamination by diesel fuel. Aquatic Microbial Ecology 10:231–241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carr, R. S., J. W. Williams, and C. T. B. Fragata. 1989. Development and evaluation of a novel marine sediment pore water toxicity test with polychaete Dinophylus gyrociliatus. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 8:533–543.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • DeLaune, R. D. and C. J. Smith. 1985. Release of nutrients and metals following oxidation of freshwater and saline sediment. Journal of Environmental Quality 14:164–168.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • DelValls, T. A., L. M. Lubián, J. M. Forja, and A. Gómez-Parra. 1997. Comparative ecotoxicity of interstitial waters in littoral ecosystems using Microtox® and the rotifer Brachinus plicatalis. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 16:2323–2332.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gambrell, R. P. 1994. Trace and toxic metals in wetlands—a review. Journal of Environmental Quality 23:883–891.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Griffith, O. W. 1980. Determination of glutathione and glutathione disulfide using glutathione reductase and 2-ainylpyridine. Analytical Biochemistry 106:207–212.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Horne, M. T., N. J. Filey, and M. D. Sprenger. 1999. Polychlorinated biphenyl- and mercury-associated alterations on benthic invertebrate community structure in a contaminated salt marsh in southeast Georgia. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 37:317–325.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kato, M. and S. Shimizu. 1985. Chlorophyll metabolism in higher plants. VI. Involvement of peroxidase in chlorophyll degradation. Plant Cell Physiology 26:1291–1301.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klemm, D. J., C. J. Strobel, L. B. Lobring, J. W. Eichelberger, and A. Alford-Stevens. 1993. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program (EMAP) Laboratory Methods Manual Estuaries U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, USA. EPA/620/R-93/xxx (draft).

    Google Scholar 

  • Lamberson, J. O., T. H. DeWitt, and R. C. Swartz. 1992. Assessment of sediment toxicity to marine benthos. p. 183–240. In G. A. Burton, Jr. (ed.) Sediment Toxicity Assessment. Lewis Publishers. Boca Raton, FL, USA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, R. F., B. Dornseif, F. Gonsoulin, K. Tenore, and R. Hanson. 1981. Fate and effects of a heavy fuel oil spill on a Georgia saltmarsh. Marine Environmental Research 5:125–143.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lerberg, S. B., A. F. Holland, and D. M. Sanger. 2000. Responses of tidal creek macrobenthic communities to the effects of watershed development. Estuaries 23:838–853.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, M. A., D. E. Weber, R. S. Stanley, and J. C. Moore. 2001. The relevance of rooted vascular plants as indicators of estuarine sediment quality. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 40:25–34.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li, Y., J. T. Morris, and D. C. Yoch. 1990. Chronic low level hydrocarbon amendments stimulate plant growth and microbial activity in saltmarsh microcosms. Journal of Applied Ecology 27:159–171.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lin, Q. and I. A. Mendelssohn. 1996. A comparative investigation of the effects of south Louisiana crude oil on the vegetation of fresh, brackish and salt marshes. Marine Pollution Bulletin 32:202–209.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Long, E. R. 2000. Degraded sediment quality in U.S. estuaries: a review of magnitude and ecological implications. Ecological Applications 10:338–349.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luoma, S. N. and K. T. Ho. 1992. The appropriate uses of marine and estuarine sediment bioassays. p. 193–226. In P. Callow (ed.) The Handbook of Ecotoxicology, Vol. 1. Blackwell Scientific, Cambridge, MA, USA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maruya, K. A. and R. F. Lee. 1998. Aroclor 1268 and toxaphene in fish from a southeastern U.S. estuary. Environmental Science and Technology 32:1069–1075.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mehra, R. K., J. Miclat, V. R. Kodati, R. H. T. C. Abdullah, and P. Mulchandani. 1996. Optical spectroscopic and reverse-phase HPLC analyses of Hg(II) binding to phytochelatins. Biochemistry Journal 314:73–82.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Microbics Corp. 1992. Microtox® Manual, a toxicity testing handbook. Microbics Corp., Carlsbad, CA, USA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Microbics Corp. 1995. Microtox® Manual. Microtox® Acute Toxicity Solid-Phase Test. Microbics Corp., Carlsbad, CA, USA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newell, S. Y. and V. D. Wall. 1998. Response of saltmarsh fungi to the presence of mercury and polychlorinated biphenyls at a Superfund site. Mycologia 90:777–784.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Newell, S. Y., V. D. Wall, and K. A. Maruya. 2000. Fungal biomass in saltmarsh grass blades at two contaminated sites. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 38:268–273.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Olsen, R., N. H. Cutshall, and I. L. Larsen. 1982. Pollutant-particle associations and dynamics in coastal marine environments: a review. Marine Chemistry 11:501–533.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ringwood, A. H., M. E. DeLorenzo, P. E. Ross, and F. Holland. 1997. Interpretation of Microtox® solid phase toxicity tests: Effects of sediment composition. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 16:1135–1140.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sanger, D. M., A. F. Holland, and G. I. Scott. 1999a. Tidal creek and salt marsh sediments in South Carolina coastal estuaries: II. Distribution of organic contaminants. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 37:458–471.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sanger, D. M., A. F. Holland, and G. I. Scott. 1999b. Tidal creek and salt marsh sediments in South Carolina coastal estuaries. I. Distribution of trace metals. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 37:445–457.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Siegel, B. Z. 1993. Plant peroxidases—an organismic perspective. Plant Growth Regulation 12:303–312.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Simpson, R. L. and R. E. Good. 1985. The role of tidal wetlands in the retention of heavy metals. p. 164–175. In H. A. Groman, T. R. Henderson, E. J. Meyers, D. M. Burke, and J. A. Kusler (eds.) Proceedings of the Conference—Wetlands of the Chesapeake. Environmental Law Institute, Washington, DC, USA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, G. M. and J. S. Weis. 1997. Predator-prey relationships in mummichogs (Fundulus heteroclitus (L.)): effects of living in a polluted environment. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 209:75–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strobel, C. J., D. J. Klemm, L. B. Lobring, J. W. Eichelberger, and A. Alford-Stevens. 1995. Environmental monitoring and assessment program (EMAP) Laboratory Methods Manual Estuaries. Vol. 1. Biological and Physical analyses. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, USA. EPA/620/R-95/008.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swartz, R. 1989. Marine sediment toxicity tests. p. 115–129. In Contaminated Marine Sediments—Assessment and Remediation. National Research Council, National Academy Press, Washington, DC, USA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Traunspurger, W. and C. Drews. 1996. Toxicity analysis of freshwater and marine sediments with meio- and macrobenthic organisms: a review. Hydrobiologia 328:215–226.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wall, V. D., J. J. Alberts, D. J. Moore, S. Y. Newell, M. Pattanayek, and S. C. Pennings. 2001. The effect of mercury and PCBs on organisms from lower trophic levels of a Georgia salt marsh. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 40:10–17.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zenk, M. H. 1996. Heavy metal detoxification in higher plants-a review. Gene 179:21–30.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Author notes

  1. Steven C. Pennings

    Present address: Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, 77204, Houston, Texas, USA

  2. V. Dan Wall

    Present address: Environmental Protection Agency, 999 E. 18th St. Suite 300, (8EPR-PS), 80202, Denver, Colorado, USA

  3. Darrin J. Moore

    Present address: Department of Forest Science, Oregon State University, 306 Richardson Hall, 97331, Corvallis, Oregon, USA

  4. Mala Pattanayek

    Present address: Harding ESE, 90 Digital Dr., 94949, Novato, California, USA

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Georgia Marine Institute, 31327, Sapelo Island, Georgia, USA

    Steven C. Pennings, V. Dan Wall, Darrin J. Moore, Mala Pattanayek, Tracy L. Buck & James J. Alberts

Authors
  1. Steven C. Pennings
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  2. V. Dan Wall
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Darrin J. Moore
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Mala Pattanayek
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Tracy L. Buck
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  6. James J. Alberts
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Steven C. Pennings.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Pennings, S.C., Wall, V.D., Moore, D.J. et al. Assessing salt marsh health: A test of the utility of five potential indicators. Wetlands 22, 406–414 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1672/0277-5212(2002)022[0406:ASMHAT]2.0.CO;2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1672/0277-5212(2002)022[0406:ASMHAT]2.0.CO;2

Key Words