Skip to main content

Field and laboratory validation of the sequential air method

Materials and Structures volume 53, Article number: 14 (2020) Cite this article

Abstract

This work compares the sequential air method (SAM) and the results from the hardened air-void analysis (ASTM C 457) for 488 different concrete mixtures from the lab and field. The results show that there is a wide variation of air contents that correlate with a Spacing Factor of 200 μm. These results show the inadequacy of using air content to decide the quality air void system of the concrete. In fact, 25% of the field data was shown to have a Spacing Factor higher than the recommended values. The results from the SAM, Spacing Factor, and volume of fine air voids (chords less than 300 μm) exhibited good agreement for both the laboratory and field data. Since the SAM can be used to test concrete before it sets and it can give important insight into the bubble size and spacing, this makes it a valuable tool to design and evaluate the air void system of fresh concrete and provide insight into the air void system in the hardened concrete.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11

References

  1. Kosmatka SH, Wilson ML (2016) Design and control of concrete mixtures. Portland Cement Association, Skokie

    Google Scholar 

  2. Pigeon M, Pleau R (1995) Durability of concrete in cold climates. CRC Press, Boca Raton

    Google Scholar 

  3. Backstrom J et al (1954) Void spacing as a basis for producing air-entrained concrete. ACI J 4:760–761

    Google Scholar 

  4. Powers TC, Willis T (1950) The air requirement of frost resistant concrete. In: Highway research board proceedings

  5. Ley MT et al (2017) Determining the air-void distribution in fresh concrete with the sequential air method. Constr Build Mater 150:723–737

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Scherer GW, Valenza J (2005) Mechanisms of frost damage. Mater Sci Concr 7(60):209–246

    Google Scholar 

  7. Kleiger P (1952) Studies of the effect of entrained air on the strength and durability of concrete made with various maximum sizes of aggregate. Portland Cement Association, Skokie

    Google Scholar 

  8. Kleiger P (1956) Further studies on the effect of entrained air on strength and durability of concrete with various sizes of aggregates. Portland Cement Association, Skokie

    Google Scholar 

  9. Ley MT (2007) The effects of fly ash on the ability to entrain and stabilize air in concrete in civil, architectural, and environmental engineering. University of Texas at Austin, Austin

    Google Scholar 

  10. A. International, Editor (2017) ASTM C138/C138M-17a standard test method for density (unit weight), yield, and air content (gravimetric) of concrete. A. International, Editor, West Conshohocken

    Google Scholar 

  11. A. International, Editor (2016) ASTM C173/C173M-16 standard test method for air content of freshly mixed concrete by the volumetric method. A. International, Editor, West Conshohocken

    Google Scholar 

  12. A. International, Editor (2017) ASTM C231/C231M-17a standard test method for air content of freshly mixed concrete by the pressure method. A. International, Editor, West Conshohocken

    Google Scholar 

  13. A.A.o.S.H.a.T. Officials, Editor (2017) AASHTO TP 118 LRFD bridge design specifications. A.A.o.S.H.a.T. Officials, Editor, Washington

    Google Scholar 

  14. Tanesi J et al (2016) Super air meter for assessing air-void system of fresh concrete. Adv Civ Eng Mater 5(2):22–37

    Google Scholar 

  15. LeFlore J (2016) Super air meter test video. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xAcHqMz_m3I. Accessed 25 Sept 2018

  16. Welchel D (2014) Determining the size and spacing of air bubbles in fresh concrete. Oklahoma State University, Stillwater

    Google Scholar 

  17. Hover KC (1988) Analytical investigation of the influence of air bubble size on the determination of the air content of freshly mixed concrete. Cem Concr Aggreg 10(1):29–34

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Klein W, Walker S (1946) A method for direct measurement of entrained air in concrete. In: Journal proceedings

  19. Ley MT, Kevin JF, Hover KC (2009) Observations of air-bubbles escaped from fresh cement paste. Cem Concr Res 39:409–416

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Ley MT, Chancey R, Juenger M, Folliard KJ (2009) The physical and chemical characteristics of the shell of air-entrained bubbles in cement paste. Cem Concr Res 39:417–425

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Felice R, Freeman JM, Ley MT (2014) Durable concrete with modern air-entraining admixtures. Concr Int 36(8):37–45

    Google Scholar 

  22. Ley MT, Tabb B (2014) A test method to measure the freeze thaw durability of fresh concrete using overpressure. In: Proc. T&DI Congr. (ASCE, Reston, VA, 2014), pp 79–87

  23. Ley MT (2007) The effects of fly ash on the ability to entrain and stabilize air in concrete. ProQuest, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  24. Jakobsen U et al (2006) Automated air void analysis of hardened concrete—a Round Robin study. Cem Concr Res 36(8):1444–1452

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Peterson K, Sutter L, Radlinski M (2010) The practical application of a flatbed scanner for air-void characterization of hardened concrete. In: Recent advancement in concrete freezing-thawing (FT) durability, ASTM International

  26. Dąbrowski M et al (2019) Validation of sequential pressure method for evaluation of the content of microvoids in air entrained concrete. Constr Build Mater 227:116633

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. ACI 201.2R-16 (2016) Guide to durable concrete. American Concrete Institute, Michigan

    Google Scholar 

  28. Weiss WJ, Ley MT, Isgor OB (2017) Toward performance specifications for concrete durability: using the formation factor for corrosion and critical saturation for freeze-thaw. Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC (17-02543)

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge funding from the Oklahoma Transportation Center and Pooled Fund TPF-5(297) and the supporting states. Special thanks to Jason Weiss for the discussion over this work. We would also like to thank David Porter, Justin Becker, Brad Woodard, Zane Lloyd, Brendan Barns, Jacob Lavey, Chad Stevenson, Jason Toney, Mark Finnell, Muwanika Jdiobe, Megan Buchanan, Tyler Suder, and Lizzie Long for their assistance in preparing samples.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, 74074, USA

    Hope Hall, M. Tyler Ley, David Welchel, Jacob Peery & Jake Leflore

  2. Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, 33146, USA

    Morteza Khatibmasjedi

  3. ATI Inc., Federal Highway Administration Mobile Concrete Trailer, Washington, DC, 20590, USA

    Jagan M. Gudimettla

  4. Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC, 20590, USA

    Michael Praul

Authors
  1. Hope Hall
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. M. Tyler Ley
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. David Welchel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Jacob Peery
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Jake Leflore
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Morteza Khatibmasjedi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Jagan M. Gudimettla
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Michael Praul
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Hope Hall.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The majority of the testing was completed by the Colorado, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Utah, Wisconsin, and Manitoba Departments of Transportation and the Federal Highway Association Mobile Concrete Trailer. There is no conflict of interest in this work.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Appendix

Appendix

The raw data from the mixtures are presented below (Tables 4, 5, 6).

Table 4 Oklahoma State University laboratory concrete testing data
Full size table
Table 5 FHWA turner fairbanks highway research center laboratory concrete testing data
Full size table
Table 6 Field concrete testing data
Full size table

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Hall, H., Ley, M.T., Welchel, D. et al. Field and laboratory validation of the sequential air method. Mater Struct 53, 14 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-020-1444-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-020-1444-8

Keywords

  • Durability
  • Freeze thaw
  • Air entrainment
  • Spacing factor
  • SAM number
  • Pressure meter
  • Field testing