Skip to main content

Kinetics of formation of silicides: A review

Journal of Materials Research volume 1, pages 205–221 (1986)Cite this article

Abstract

The kinetics of silicide growth are classified into three different categories: (a) diffusion controlled, (b) nucleation controlled, (c) others (reaction rate controlled). These are analyzed with the aim of understanding both the phenomenology of growth and the specific atomic mechanisms of phase formation. Diffusion-controlled growth is discussed with respect to the Nernst-Einstein equation. Stress relaxation is considered as a possible cause of reaction-rate control. The relative merits of two different types of marker experiments are compared. A few silicides are discussed in terms of what can be inferred about diffusion mechanisms. The competition between reaction-rate and diffusion control phenomena is shown to have specific effects on the sequence of phase formation; it is also related to the formation of some amorphous compounds. Reactions between silicon and alloyed metal films are used to illustrate the respective influences of mobility and driving force factors on the kinetics of silicide growth; they can also be used to underline the dominance of nucleation over diffusion in some silicide formation processes.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

References

  1. R. W. Bartlett, P. R. Gage, and P. A. Larsen, Trans. AIME 230, 1528 (1964).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. P. R. Gage and R. W. Bartlett, Trans. AIME 236, 1230 (1966).

    Google Scholar 

  3. R. W. Bartlett, Trans. AIME 239, 1109 (1967).

    Google Scholar 

  4. T. P. Chow, D. M. Brown, A. J. Steckl, and M. Garfinkel, J. Appl. Phys. 51, 5981 (1980).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. M.-A. Nicolet and S. S. Lau, in VLSI Electronics, Microstructure Science, edited by N. G. Einspruch and G. B. Larrabee (Academic, New York, 1983), Vol. 6, p. 330.

    Google Scholar 

  6. M. Eizenberg and K. N. Tu, J. Appl. Phys. 53, 6886 (1982).

    Google Scholar 

  7. S. S. Lau, J. S.-Y. Feng, J. O. Olowolafe, and M.-A. Nicolet, Thin Solid Films 25, 415 (1975).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. G. J. van Gurp and C. Langereis, J. Appl. Phys. 46, 4301 (1975).

    Google Scholar 

  9. S. S. Lau, J. W. Mayer, and K. N. Tu, J. Appl. Phys. 49, 4005 (1978).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. K. N. Tu, G. Ottaviani, R. D. Thompson, and J. W. Mayer, J. Appl. Phys. 53, 4406 (1982).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. K. N. Tu, W. K. Chu, and J. W. Mayer, Thin Solid Films 25, 403 (1975).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. J. O. Olowolafe, M.-A. Nicolet, and J. W. Mayer, Thin Solid Films 38, 143 (1976).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. D. M. Scott and M.-A. Nicolet, Nucl. Instrum. Methods 182/183, 655 (1981).

    Google Scholar 

  14. D. J. Coe and E. H. Rhoderick, J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 9, 965 (1976).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. D. M. Scott and M.-A. Nicolet, Phys. Status Solidi A 66, 773 (1981).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. G. Majni, F. Delia Valle, and C. Nobili, J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 17, L77 (1984).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. F. M. d’Heurle, C. S. Petersson, J. E. Baglin, S. J. LaPlaca, and C. Y. Wong, J. Appl. Phys. 55, 4208 (1984).

    Google Scholar 

  18. C. S. Petersson, J. E. Baglin, F. M. d’Heurle, and S. J. LaPlaca, J. Appl. Phys. 53, 4866 (1982).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. C. S. Petersson, R. Anderson, J. E. Baglin, J. Dempsey, W. Hammer, F. M. d’Heurle, and S. J. LaPlaca, J. Appl. Phys. 51, 373 (1980).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. R. W. Bower and J. W. Mayer, Appl. Phys. Lett. 20, 359 (1972).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. C. A. Hutchins and A. Shepela, Thin Solid Films 18, 343 (1973).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. D. J. Fertig and G. Y. Robinson, Solid-State Electron. 19, 407 (1976).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. N. W. Cheung, M.-A. Nicolet, M. Wittmer, C. A. Evans, and T. T. Sheng, Thin Solid Films 16, 1461 (1973).

    Google Scholar 

  24. J. F. Ziegler, J. W. Mayer, C. J. Kircher, and K. N. Tu, J. Appl. Phys. 44, 3851 (1973).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. C. S. Petersson, J. E. Baglin, W. Hammer, F. M. d’Heurle, T. S. Kuan, I. Odhomari, J. de Sousa Pires, and P. A. Tove, J. Appl. Phys. 50, 3357 (1979).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. H. Muta and D. Shinoda, J. Appl. Phys. 43, 2913 (1972).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. J. M. Poate and T. C. Tisone, Appl. Phys. Lett. 24, 391 (1974).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. C. Canali, C. Catellani, M. Prudenziati, W. H. Wadlin, and C. A. Evans, Appl. Phys. Lett. 31, 43 (1977).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. C. A. Crider and J. M. Poate, Appl. Phys. Lett. 36, 417 (1980).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. C. D. Lien, M.-A. Nicolet, C. S. Pai, and S. S. Lau, Appl. Phys. A 36, 153 (1985).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. G. V. Kidson, J. Nucl. Mater. 3, 21 (1961).

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  32. R. Pretorius, W. Strydom, and J. Mayer, Phys. Rev. B 22, 1885 (1980).

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  33. L. R. Zheng, L. S. Hung, and J. W. Mayer, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 1, 758 (1983).

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  34. F. M. d’Heurle, IBM RC Report No. 10422 (Publication Department, IBM Research, Yorktown Heights, NY, 1983).

  35. J. E. Baglin, F. M. d’Heurle, and C. S. Petersson, Appl. Phys. Lett. 36, 594 (1980).

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  36. R. D. Thompson, B. Y. Tsaur, and K. N. Tu, Appl. Phys. Lett. 38, 535 (1981).

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  37. J. E. Baglin, F. M. d’Heurle, and C. S. Petersson, J. Appl. Phys. 52, 2841 (1981).

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  38. J. Barin and O. Knacke, Thermodynamic Properties of Inorganic Substances (Springer, Berlin, 1973).

    Google Scholar 

  39. J. Barin, O. Knacke, and O. Kubaschewski, Thermodynamic Properties of Inorganic Substances Supplement (Springer, Berlin, 1977).

    Book  Google Scholar 

  40. F. M. d’Heurle and C. S. Petersson, Thin Solid Films 128, 283 (1985).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. A. Appelbaum, R. V. Knoell, and S. P. Murarka, J. Appl. Phys. 57, 1322 (1985).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. C.-D. Lien, M.-A. Nicolet, and S. S. Lau, Appl. Phys. A 34, 249 (1984).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. J. C. Fan and C. H. Anderson, J. Appl. Phys. 52, 4003 (1981).

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  44. E. P. Donovan, F. Saepen, D. Turnbull, J. M. Poate, and D. C. Jacobson, Appl. Phys. Lett. 42, 698 (1983).

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  45. C. S. Petersson, J. E. Baglin, F. M. d’Heurle, J. J. Dempsey, J. M. Harper, C. M. Serrano, and M. Y. Tsai, in Thin Film Interfaces and Interactions, edited by J. E. Baglin and J. Poate (The Electrochemical Society, Pennington, NJ, 1980), p. 290.

    Google Scholar 

  46. H. Kato and Y. Nakamura, Thin Solid Films 34, 135 (1976).

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  47. A. Guivarc’h, P. Auvray, L. Berthou, M. Le Cun, J. P. Boulet, P. Henoc, G. Pelous, and A. Martinez, J. Appl. Phys. 49, 233 (1978).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. R. W. Bower and J. W. Mayer, Appl. Phys. Lett. 20, 359 (1972).

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  49. B. Oertel and R. Sperling, Thin Solid Films 37, 185 (1976).

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  50. L. D. Locker and C. D. Capio, J. Appl. Phys. 44, 4366 (1973).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. N. Hashimoto, Trans. AIME 239, 1109 (1967).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. K. N. Tu, J. F. Ziegler, and C. J. Kircher, Appl. Phys. Lett. 23, 493 (1973).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. H. Krautle, M.-A. Nicolet, and J. W. Mayer, J. Appl. Phys. 45, 3304 (1974).

    Google Scholar 

  54. B. I. Fomin, A. E. Gershinskii, E. I. Cherepan, and F. L. Edelman, Phys. Status Solidi A 36, K89 (1976).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. S. Rigo, A. Turos, and G. Velasco, in the Proceedings of the 7th International Vacuum Congress, Vienna, 1978, p. 1109.

  56. S. P. Murarka and D. B. Fraser, J. Appl. Phys. 51, 342 (1980).

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  57. S. S. Iyer and C. Y. Ting, J. Electrochem. Soc. 132, 2240 (1985).

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  58. W. B. Pearson, The Crystal Chemistry and Physics of Metals and Alloys (Wiley, New York, 1972), p. 589.

    Google Scholar 

  59. J. P. Suchet, Crystal Chemistry and Semiconduction (Academic, New York, 1971).

    Google Scholar 

  60. F. M. d’Heurle, in VLSI Science and Technology 1982, edited by C. Dell’Oca and W. M. Bullis (The Electrochemical Society, Pennington, NJ, 1982), p. 194.

    Google Scholar 

  61. L. S. Hung, J. Gyulai, J. W. Mayer, S. S. Lau, and M.-A. Nicolet, J. Appl. Phys. 54, 5076 (1983).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. G. Göltz, J. Torres, J. Laizerowicz, and G. Bomchil, Thin Solid Films 124, 19 (1985).

    Google Scholar 

  63. G. Göltz (private communication).

  64. A. P. Botha and P. Pretorius, Thin Solid Films 93, 127 (1982).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. W. K. Chu, S. S. Lau, J. W. Mayer, H. Muller, and K. N. Tu, Thin Solid Films 25, 393 (1975).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. T. G. Finstad, Phys. Status Solid A 63, 223 (1981).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. M. Bartur and M.-A. Nicolet, J. Appl. Phys. 54, 5404 (1983).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. F. M. d’Heurle, L. Stolt, C. S. Petersson, and B. Stritzker, J. Appl. Phys. 53, 5678 (1982).

    Google Scholar 

  69. J. E. Baglin, J. J. Dempsey, W. Hammer, F. M. d’Heurle, C. S. Petersson, and C. Serrano, J. Electron. Mater. 8, 641 (1979).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. J. E. Baglin, F. M. d’Heurle, W. Hammer, and C. S. Petersson, Nucl. Instrum. Methods 168, 491 (1980).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. W. C. Mallard, A. B. Gardner, R. F. Bass, and L. M. Slifkin, Phys. Rev. 129, 617 (1963).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. C. S. Barrett, Structure of Metals (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1942), p. 646.

    Google Scholar 

  73. I. Engström, Structural Chemistry of Platinum Metal Suicides (Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis, Uppsala, 1970).

    Google Scholar 

  74. D. J. Poutcharovsky andE. Parthe, Acta Cryst. B 30, 2692 (1974).

    Google Scholar 

  75. F. C. Nix and F. E. Jaumot, Phys. Rev. 83, 1275 (1951).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. A. E. Berkowitz, F. E. Jaumot, and F. C. Nix, Phys. Rev. 95, 1185 (1954).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. B. Y. Tsaur and L. S. Hung, Appl. Phys. Lett. 37, 922 (1980).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. G. J. van Gurp and W. F. van der Weg, J. Appl. Phys. 49, 4011 (1978).

    Google Scholar 

  79. C.-D. Lien, M. Bartur, and M.-A. Nicolet, in Proceedings of the Materials Research Society (North-Holland, New York, 1984), Vol. 25, p. 51.

    Google Scholar 

  80. S. Yanagisawa and T. Fukuyama J. Electrochem. Soc. 127, 1150 (1980).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. J. Angilello, J. E. Baglin, F. M. d’Heurle, C. S. Petersson, and A. Segmuller, in Thin Film Interfaces and Interactions, edited by J. E. Baglin and J. Poate (The Electrochemical Society, Pennington, NJ, 1980), p. 369.

    Google Scholar 

  82. J. Angilello, F. M. d’Heurle, C. S. Petersson, and A. Segmuller, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 17, 471 (1980).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. R. B. Schwarz and W. L. Johnson, Phys. Rev. Lett. 51, 415 (1983).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Y.-T. Cheng, W. L. Johnson, and M.-A. Nicolet, Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 800 (1985).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. R. B. Schwarz, K. L. Wong, W. L. Johnson, and B. M. Clemens, J. Non-Crystalline Solids 61 & 62, 129 (1984).

    Google Scholar 

  86. B. M. Clemens and M. J. Suchowski, Appl. Phys. Lett. 47, 943 (1985).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. P. G. Meschter and E. L. Worrell, Met. Trans. A 8, 502 (1977).

    Google Scholar 

  88. S. Duschman and J. M. Lafferty, Scientific Foundations of Vacuum Technique (Wiley, New York, 1962), p. 702.

    Google Scholar 

  89. J. O. Olowolafe, M.-A. Nicolet, and J. W. Mayer, J. Appl. Phys. 47, 5182 (1976).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. E. C. Zingu, C. Comrie, and R. Pretorius, J. Appl. Phys. 54, 2392 (1983).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. U. Shreter, F. C. T. So, and M.-A. Nicolet, J. Appl. Phys. 55, 3500 (1984).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. P. G. Shewmon, Diffusion in Solids (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1963), p. 36.

    Google Scholar 

  93. Y. Adda and J. Philibert, La Diffusion dans les Solides (Presses Universitaires de France, Paris, 1966), p. 659.

    Google Scholar 

  94. M. Schoijet and L. A. Girifalco, J. Phys. Chem. Solids 29, 911 (1968).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. A. B. Lidiard, in Crystals with the Fluorite Structure, edited by H. Hayes (Clarendon, Oxford, 1974), p. 124.

    Google Scholar 

  96. R. W. Sauer and E. J. Freise, in Anisotropy in Single Crystal Refractory Compounds, edited by F. M. Vahldiek and S. A. Mersoleds (Plenum, New York, 1968), p. 459.

    Google Scholar 

  97. D. Gupta, D. Lazarus, and D. S. Lieberman, Phys. Rev. 153, 863 (1967).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Y. Adda and J. Philibert, La Diffusion dans les Solides (Presses Universitaires de France, Paris, 1966), pp. 491, 66O.

    Google Scholar 

  99. B. E. Deal and A. S. Grove, J. Appl. Phys. 36, 3770 (1965).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. K. N. Tu, in Advances in Electronics Materials, edited by B. Wessels and G. V. Chin (American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, in press).

  101. A. G. Guy and H. Oikawa, Trans. AIME 245, 2293 (1969).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. U. Gösele and K. N. Tu, J. Appl. Phys. 53, 3252 (1982).

    Google Scholar 

  103. J. O. Olowolafe, K. N. Tu, and J. Angelillo, J. Appl. Phys. 50, 6316 (1979).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. J. W. Mayer, S. S. Lau, and K. N. Tu, J. Appl. Phys. 50, 5885 (1979).

    Google Scholar 

  105. M. Eizenberg and K. N. Tu, J. Appl. Phys. 53, 1577 (1982).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. A. Applebaum, M. Eizenberg, and R. Brener, J. Appl. Phys. 55, 914 (1984).

    Google Scholar 

  107. L. R. Zheng, L. S. Hung, and J. W. Mayer, Thin Solid Films 104, 207 (1983).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. F. M. d’Heurle, J. Appl. Phys. 57, 2311 (1985).

    Google Scholar 

  109. S. J. Rothman, J. Appl. Phys. 58, 2073 (1985).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. F. M. d’Heurle, D. D. Anfiteatro, V. R. Deline, and T. G. Finstad, Thin Solid Films 128, 107 (1985).

    Google Scholar 

  111. T. G. Finstad, D. D. Anfiteatro, V. R. Deline, F. M. d’Heurle, P. Gas, V. L. Moruzzi, K. Schwartz, and J. Tersoff, Thin Solid Films (to be published).

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. IBM Research Center, P. O. Box 218, Yorktown Heights, New York, 10598, USA

    F. M. d’Heurle & P. Gas

Authors
  1. F. M. d’Heurle
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. P. Gas
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

d’Heurle, F.M., Gas, P. Kinetics of formation of silicides: A review. Journal of Materials Research 1, 205–221 (1986). https://doi.org/10.1557/JMR.1986.0205

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1557/JMR.1986.0205