Abstract
Enigmatic morphological features of the formation and fate of ‘dark’ (hyper-basophilic, hyper-argy-rophilic and hyper-electrondense) neurons suggest that the mechanical work causing their dramatic shrinkage (whole-cell ultrastructural compaction) is done by a previously ‘unknown’ ultrastructural component residing in the spaces between their ‘known’ (i.e. visible in the conventional transmission electron microscopy) ultrastructural constituents. Embedment-free section electron microscopy revealed in these spaces the existence of a continuous network of gel microdomains, which is embedded in a continuous network of fluid-filled lacunae. We gathered experimental facts suggesting that this gel network is capable of a volume-reducing phase-transition (an established physico-chemical phenomenon), which could be the motor of the whole-cell ultrastructural compaction. The present paper revisits our relevant observations and speculates how such a continuous whole-cell gel network can do both whole-cell and compartmentalized mechanical work.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
References
Annaka, M., Tanaka, T. (1992) Multiple phases of polymer gels. Nature 355, 430–432.
Bortner, C. D., Cidlowski, J. A. (2007) Cell shrinkage and monovalent cation fluxes: role in apoptosis. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 462, 176–188.
Cammermeyer, J. (1961) The importance of avoiding ‘dark’ neurons in experimental neuropathology. Acta Neuropathol. 1, 245–270.
Clegg, J. S. (1984) Properties and metabolism of the aqueous cytoplasm and its boundaries. Am. J. Physiol. 246, R133–R151.
Csordâs, A., Mázló, M., Gallyas, F. (2003) Recovery versus death of ‘dark’ (compacted) neurons in non-impaired parenchymal environment: Light and electron microscopic observations. Acta Neuropathol. 106, 37–49.
Gallyas, F. (2007) Novel cell-biological ideas deducible from morphological observations on ‘dark’ neurons revisited. Ideggyógy. Sz. 60, 212–222.
Gallyas, F., Pál, J. (2008) Whole-cell phase transition in neurons and its possible role in apoptotic cell death. In: Pollack, G. H., Chin, W.-C. (eds) Phase Transition in Cell Biology. Springer, New York, pp. 63–71.
Gallyas, F., Güldner, F. H., Zoltay, G., Wolff, J. R. (1990) Golgi-like demonstration of ‘dark’ neurons with an argyrophil III method for experimental neuropathology. Acta Neuropathol. 79, 620–628.
Gallyas, F., Zoltay, G. (1992) An immediate light microscopic response of neuronal somata, dendrites and axons to non-contusing consussive head injury. Acta Neuropathol. 83, 386–393.
Gallyas, F., Horvâth, Z., David, K., Liposits, Z. (1994) An immediate morphopathologic response of a subpopulation of astrocytes to electroshock: ‘dark’ astrocytes. Neurobiology 2, 245–253.
Gallyas, F., Farkas, O., Mázló, M. (2004) Gel-to-gel phase transition may occur in mammalian cells: Mechanism of formation of ‘dark’ (compacted) neurons. Biol. Cell 96, 313–324.
Gallyas, F., Csordâs, A., Schwarz, A., Mázló, M. (2005) ’Dark’ (compacted) neurons may not die through the necrotic pathway. Exp. Brain Res. 160, 473–486.
Gallyas, F., Kiglics, V., Baracskay, P., Juhâsz, G., Czurkó, A. (2008) The mode of death of epilepsy-induced ‘dark’ neurons is neigther necrosis nor apoptosis. An electron-microscopic study. Brain Res. 1239, 207–215.
Gallyas, F., Pál, J., Bukovics, P. (2009) Supravital microwave experiments support that the formation of ‘dark’ neurons is propelled by phase transition in an intracellular gel system. Brain Res. 1270, 152–156.
Graeber, M. B., Blakemore, W. F., Kreutzberg, G. W. (2002) Cellular pathology of the central nervous system. In: Graham, D. I., Lantos, P. L. (eds) Greenfield’s Neuropathology. Arnold, London, pp. 123–191.
Harmon, B. V. (1987) An ultrastructural study of spontaneous cell death in mouse mastocytoma with particular reference to dark cells. J. Pathol. 153, 345–355.
Heuser, J. E. (2003) Whatever happened to the ‘microtrabecular concept’? Biol. Cell 94, 561–596.
Heuser, J. E., Kirshner, M. W. (1980) Filament organization revealed in platinum replicas of freeze-dried cytoskeletons. J. Cell Biol. 86, 212–234.
Hoffman, A. S. (1991) Conventional and environmentally-sensitive hydrogels for medical and industrial uses: a review paper. Polymer Gels 268, 82–87.
Kellermayer, R., Zsombok, A., Auer, T., Gallyas, F. (2006) Electrically induced gel-to-gel phase-transition in neurons. Cell Biol. Int. 30, 175–180.
Kondo, H. (1984) Reexamination of the reality or artifact of the microtrabeculae. J. Ultrastruct. Res. 87, 124–135.
Kondo, H. (1995) On the real structure of the cytoplasmic matrix: Learning from the embedment-free electron microscopy. Arch. Histol. Cytol. 58, 397–415.
Kondo, H. (2003) Cytoplasmic matrix in embedment-free electron microscopy: non-molecular biological histology. Anat. Sci. Int. 78, 17–24.
Kondo, H. (2008) What we have learned and will learn from cell ultrastructure in embedment-free section electron microscopy. Microsc. Res. Techn. 71, 418–442.
Kovâcs, B., Bukovics, P., Gallyas, F. (2007) Morphological effects of transcardially perfused SDS on the rat brain. Biol. Cell 99, 425–432.
Kövesdi, E., Pâl, J., Gallyas, F. (2007) The fate of ‘dark’ neurons produced by transient focal cerebral ischemia in a non-necrotic and non-excitotoxic environment: Neurobiological aspects. Brain Res. 1147, 472–483.
Ling, G. N (1962) A Physical Theory of the Living State: The Association-Induction Hypothesis. Waltham, Blaisdell.
Ling, G. N. (1984) In Search of the Physical Basis of Life. Plenum Press, New York and London.
Ling, G. N, Ochsenfeld, M. M. (1973) Mobility of potassium ion in frog muscle cells, both living and dead. Science 181, 78–81.
Ling, G. N., Walton, C. L. (1975) What retains water in living cells. Science 191, 293–295.
Liposits, Zs., Kalló, I., Hrabovszky, E., Gallyas, F. (1997) Ultrastructural pathology of degenerating ‘dark’ granule cells in the hippocampal dentate gyrus of adrenalectomized rats. Acta Biol. Hung. 48, 173–187.
Pal, J., Tóth, Zs., Farkas, O., Kellényi, L., Dóczi, T., Gallyas, F. (2006) Selective induction of ultra-structural compaction in axons by means of a new head injury paradigm. J. Neurosci. Meth. 153, 283–289.
Pollack, G. H. (1996) Phase transitions and the molecular mechanism of contraction. Biophys. Chem. 59, 315–328.
Pollack, G. H. (2001) Cells, Gels and the Engines of Life. Ebner & Sons, Seattle.
Pollack, G. H. (2002) The cell as a biomaterial. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 13, 811–831.
Pollack, G. H. (2003) The role of aqueous interfaces in the cell: Review. Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 103, 173–196.
Porter, K. R. (1989) The cytoplasm and its matrix. Prog. Clin. Biol. Res. 295, 15–20.
Schliwa, M., Euteneuer, U., Porter, K. R. (1987) Release of enzymes of intermediary metabolism from permeabilized cells: further evidence in support of a structural organization of the cytoplasmic matrix. Eur. J. Cell Biol. 44, 214–218.
Tanaka, T., Sato, E., Hirokawa, Y., Hirotsu, S., Petermans, J. (1985) Critical kinetics of volume phase transition of gels. Phys. Rev. Lett. 55, 2455–2458.
Tanaka, T., Annaka, M, Ilmain, F., Ishii, K., Kokufuta, E, Suzuki, A., Tokita, M. (1992) Phase transitions of gels. In: Karalis, T. K. (ed.) Mechanics of Swelling. NATO ASI Series, Vol. H64. Springer. Berlin, pp. 683–703.
Tasaki, I. (2005) Repetitive abrupt structural changes in polyanionic gels: a comparison with analogous processes in nerve fibers. J. Theor. Biol. 236, 2–11.
Tasaki, I. (2008) On the reversible abrupt structural changes in nerve fibers underlying their excitation and conduction processes. In: Pollack, G. H., Chin, W.-C. (eds) Phase Transition in Cell Biology. Springer, New York, pp. 1–21.
Tóth, Zs., Seress, L., Tóth, P., Ribak, C. H., Gallyas, F. (1997) A common morphopathological response of astrocytes to various injuries: ‘dark’ astrocytes. A light and electron microscopic analysis. J. Brain Res. 38, 173–186.
Verdugo, P., Deyrup-Olsen, I., Martin, A. W., Luchtel, D. L. (1992) Polymer gel phase transition: the molecular mechanism of product release in mucin secretion. In: Karalis, T. K. (ed.) Mechanics of Swelling. NATO ASI Series, Vol. H64. Springer, Berlin, pp. 671–681.
Wolosewick, J. J., Porter, K. R. (1976) Stereo high-voltage electron microscopy of whole cells of the human diploid line, WI-38. Am. J. Anat. 147, 303–324.
Wolosewick, J. J., Porter, K. R. (1979) Microtrabecular lattice of the cytoplasmic ground substance. Artifact or reality. J. Cell Biol. 82, 114–139.
Wyllie, A. H. (1987) Apoptosis: Cell death in tissue regulation. J. Pathol. 153, 313–316.
Yeghiazarian, L., Lux, R. (2008) Propagation of volume phase transition as a possible mechanism for movement in biological systems. In: Pollack, G. H., Chin, W.-C. (eds) Phase Transition in Cell Biology. Springer, New York, pp. 159–170.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.
About this article
Cite this article
Gallyas, F. A Cytoplasmic Gel Network Capable of Mediating the Conversion of Chemical Energy to Mechanical Work in Diverse Cell Processes: A Speculation. BIOLOGIA FUTURA 61, 367–379 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1556/ABiol.61.2010.4.1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1556/ABiol.61.2010.4.1