Abstract
OBJECTIVE: To address the rapid influence of testosterone (T) on neuromuscular performance, we compared the T and physical performance responses of adults exposed to a physical and psychological stimulus. DESIGN: A group of healthy men (n=12) and women (n=14) each completed three treatments using a randomised, crossover design: exercise involving five × ten-second cycle sprints, viewing a video clip with aggressive content and a control session. Salivary T concentrations, hand-grip strength (HGS) and countermovement jump peak power (CMJ PP) were assessed before and 15 minutes after each session. RESULTS: The relative changes in T (17±29%) and CMJ PP (−0.1±4.4%) following sprint exercise were superior to the aggressive video (−6.3±19%, −2.2±5.9%) and control (−4.8±23%, −2.8±4.4%) treatments, respectively (p ≤0.05). Pre-treatment T levels correlated (r= −0.58 to −0.61, p <0.05) with the T responses of men (sprint exercise) and women (sprint exercise, aggressive video), but no variables were significantly correlated with the relative changes in HGS or CMJ PP. CONCLUSIONS: Sprint exercise promoted a general rise in T and maintained CMJ PP, relative to the video and control treatments. In both sexes, those individuals with higher pre-test T levels tended to produce smaller T responses to one or more treatments. These data highlight the importance of stimulus selection and individual predispositions when attempting to acutely modify T and associated physical performance.
References
Crewther BT, Cook C, Cardinale M, Weatherby RP, Lowe T, 2011 Two emerging concepts for elite athletes: The short-term effects of testosterone and Cortisol on the neuromuscular system and the dose-response training role of these endogenous hormones. Sports Med 41: 103–23.
Vingren JL, Kraemer WJ, Ratamess NA, et al, 2010 Testosterone physiology in resistance exercise and training: The up-stream regulatory elements. Sports Med 40: 1037–53.
West DW, Burd NA, Staples AW, Phillips SM, 2010 Human exercise-mediated skeletal muscle hypertrophy is an intrinsic process. Int J Biochem Cell B 42: 1371–1375.
Kilduff LP, Finn CV, Baker JS, Cook CJ, West DJ, 2013 Preconditioning strategies to enhance physical performance on the day of competition. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 8: 677–681.
Crewther BT, Cook CJ, Lowe TE, Weatherby RP, Gill N, 2011 The effects of short cycle sprints on power, strength and salivary hormones in elite rugby players. J Strength Cond Res 25: 32–39.
Cook CJ, Kilduff LP, Crewther BT, Beaven M, West DJ, 2014 Morning based strength training improves afternoon physical performance in rugby union players. J Sci Med Sport 17: 317–321.
Rønnestad BR, Nygaard H, Raastad T, 2011 Physiological elevation of endogenous hormones results in superior strength training adaptation. Eur J Appl Physiol: 111: 2249–2259.
Hansen S, Kvorning T, Kjaer M, Sjøgaard G, 2001 The effect of short-term strength training on human skeletal muscle: the importance of physiologically elevated hormone levels. Scand J Med Sci Sport 11: 347–354.
Beaven MC, Cook CJ, Gill ND, 2008 Significant strength gains observed in rugby players after specific resistance exercise protocols based on individual salivary testosterone responses. J Strength Cond Res 22: 419–425.
Crewther BT, Kilduff LP, Cook CJ, 2014 Trained and untrained males show reliable salivary testosterone responses to a physical stimulus, but not a psychological stimulus J Endocrinol Invest 37: 1065–1072.
Obmihski Z, Borkowski L, Ladyga M, Hübner-Wozniak E, 1998 Concentrations of Cortisol, testosterone and lactate, and power output in repeated, supramaximal exercise in elite fencers. Biol Sport 15: 19–24.
Goto K, Ishii N, Kurokawa K, Takamatsu K, 2007 Attenuated growth hormone response to resistance exercise with prior sprint exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 39: 108–115.
Hellhammer DH, Hubert W, Schürmeyer T, 1985 Changes in saliva testosterone after psychological stimulation in men. Psychoneuroendocrino 10: 77–81.
Stoléru SG, Ennaji A, Cournot A, Spira A, 1993 LH pulsatile secretion and testosterone blood levels are influenced by sexual arousal in human males. Psychoneuroendocrino 18: 205–218.
Fukui H, Yamashita M, 2003 The effects of music and visual stress on testosterone and Cortisol in men and women. Neuroendocrinol Lett 24: 173–180.
Cook CJ, Crewther BT, 2012 Changes in salivary testosterone concentrations and subsequent voluntary squat performance following the presentation of short video clips. Horm Behav 61: 17–22.
Kilduff LP, Hopp RN, Cook CJ, Crewther BT, Manning JT, 2013 Digit ratio (2D:4D), aggression, and testosterone in men exposed to an aggressive visual stimulus. Evol Psychol 11: 953–964.
Beaven MC, Ingram JR, Gill ND, Hopkins WG, 2010 Ultradian rhythmicity and induced changes in salivary testosterone. Eur J Appl Physiol 110: 405–413.
Nindl BC, Kraemer WJ, Gotshalk LA, et al, 2001 Testosterone responses after resistance exercise in women: influence of regional fat distribution. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 11: 451–465.
Kochańska-Dziurowicz A, Gawel-Szostek V, Gabryś T, Kmita D, 2001 Changes in prolactin and testosterone levels induced by acute physical exertion in young female athletes. Fiziologiya Cheloveka 27: 100–103.
Enea C, Boisseau N, Ottavy M, et al, 2009 Effects of menstrual cycle, oral contraception, and training on exercise-induced changes in circulating DHEA-sulphate and testosterone in young women. Eur J Appl Physiol 106: 365–373.
Lopez HH, Hay AC, Conklin PH, 2009 Attractive men induce testosterone and Cortisol release in women. Horm Behav 56: 84–92.
Jiménez M, Aguilar R, Alvero-Cruz JR, 2012 Effects of victory and defeat on testosterone and Cortisol response to competition: Evidence for same response patterns in men and women. Psychoneuroendocrino 37: 1577–1581.
Okudan N, Gökbel H, Uçok K, Baltaci AK, 2005 Serum leptin concentration and anaerobic performance do not change during the menstrual cycle of young females. Neuroendocrinol Lett 26: 297–300.
Bird SP, Tarpenning KM, 2004 Influence of circadian time structure on acute hormonal responses to a single bout of heavy-resistance exercise in weight-trained men. Chronobiol Int 21: 131–146.
Maestripieri D, Baran NM, Sapienza P, Zingales L, 2010 Between- and within-sex variation in hormonal responses to psychological stress in a large sample of college students. Stress 13: 413–424.
Thomas NE, Leyshon A, Hughes MG, et al, 2010 Concentrations of salivary testosterone, Cortisol, and immunoglobulin A after supra-maximal exercise in female adolescents. J Sports Sci 28: 1361–1368.
Millet K, Dewitte S, 2007 Digit ratio (2D:4D) moderates the impact of an aggressive music video on aggression. Pers Indiv Differ 43: 289–294.
DeSoto CM, Hitlan RT, Deol RS, McAdams D, 2009 Testosterone fluctuations in young men: The difference between interacting with like and not-like others. Evol Psychol 8: 173–88.
Gibson LE, Checkley S, Papadopoulos A, et al, 1999 Increased salivary Cortisol reliable induced by a protein-rich midday meal. Psychosom Med 61: 214–224.
Arregger AL, Contreras LN, Tumilasci OR, Aquilano DR, Cardoso EML, 2007 Salivary testosterone: a reliable approach to the diagnosis of male hypogonadism. Clin Endocrinol 67: 656–662.
Toone RJ, Peacock OJ, Smith AA, et al, 2013 Measurement of steroid hormones in saliva: Effects of sample storage condition. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 73: 615–621.
Leyk D, Gorges W, Ridder D, et al, 2007 Hand-grip strength of young men, women and highly trained female athletes. Eur J Appl Physiol 99: 415–421.
West DJ, Owen NJ, Jones MR, et al, 2011 Relationships between force-time characteristics of the isometric midthigh pull and dynamic performance in professional rugby league players. J Strength Cond Res 25: 3070–3075.
Liang K-Y, Zeger SL, 1986 Longitudinal data analysis using generalized linear models. Biometrika 73: 13–22.
Smith AA, Toone R, Peacock O, et al, 2013 Dihydrotestosterone is elevated following sprint exercise in healthy young men. J Appl Physiol 114: 1435–1440.
Copeland JL, Consitt LA, Tremblay MS, 2002 Hormonal responses to endurance and resistance exercise in females aged 19–69 years. J Geront Series A: Biol Sci Med Sci 57A: B158–165.
Goto K, Ishii N, Kizuka T, et al, 2009 Hormonal and metabolic responses to slow movement resistance exercise with different durations of concentric and eccentric actions. Eur J Appl Physiol 106: 731–739.
Crewther BT, Cook CJ, Gaviglio CM, Kilduff LP, Drawer S, 2012 Baseline strength can influence the ability of salivary free testosterone to predict squat and sprinting performance. J Strength Cond Res 26: 261–268.
Cook CJ, Beaven MC, 2013 Salivary testosterone is related to self-selected training load in elite female athletes. Physiol Behav 116–117: 8–12.
Zilioli S, Watson NV, 2013 Winning isn’t everything: mood and testosterone regulate the Cortisol response in competition. PLoS One 8: e52582.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Crewther, B.T., Kilduff, L.P., Finn, C. et al. Salivary testosterone responses to a physical and psychological stimulus and subsequent effects on physical performance in healthy adults. Hormones 15, 248–255 (2016). https://doi.org/10.14310/horm.2002.1676
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.14310/horm.2002.1676
Key words
- Exercise
- Gender
- Gonadal
- Neuromuscular
- Priming