Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Methodological challenges in research on sexual risk behavior: I. Item content, scaling, and data analytical options

  • Published:
Annals of Behavioral Medicine

Abstract

Investigation of sexual behavior involves many challenges, including how to assess sexual behavior and how to analyze the resulting data. Sexual behavior can be assessed using absolute frequency measures (also known as counts) or with relative frequency measures (e.g., rating scales that range from never to always). We discuss these 2 assessment approaches in the context of research on HIV risk behavior. We conclude that these 2 approaches yield nonredundant information and, more important, that only data yielding information about the absolute frequency of risk behavior have the potential to serve as valid indicators of HIV contraction risk. However, analyses of count data may be challenging because of non-normal distributions with many outliers. Therefore, we identify new and powerful data analytical solutions that have been developed recently to analyze count data and discuss limitations of’acommonly appliedmethod(viz., analysis of covariance using baseline scores as covariates).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. di Mauro D:Sexuality Research in the United States: An Assessment of the Social and Behavioral Sciences. New York: Social Science Research Council, 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Ostrow DG, Kalichman SC: Methodological issues in HIV behavioral interventions. In Peterson JL, DiClemente RJ (eds),Handbook of HIV Prevention. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum, 2001, 67–80.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Schroder KEE, Carey MP, Vanable PA: Methodological challenges in research on sexual risk behavior: II. Accuracy of self-reports.Annals of Behavioral Medicine. 2003,26:104–123.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Jemmott JB III, Jemmott LS: HIV risk reduction behavioral interventions with heterosexual adolescents.AIDS. 2000,14(Suppl. 2):S40-S52.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Abraham CS, Sheeran P, Abrams D, Spears R: Health beliefs and teenage condom use: A prospective study.Psychology and Health. 1996,11:641–655.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Agnew CR, Loving TJ: Future time orientation and condom use attitudes, intentions, and behavior.Journal of Social Behavior and Personality. 1999,13:755–764.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Albarracin D, Fishbein M, Middlestadt SE: Generalizing behavioral findings across times, samples, and measures: A study of condom use.Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 1998,28:657–674.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Albarracin D, Ho RM, McNatt PS, et al.: Structure of outcome beliefs in condom use.Health Psychology. 2000,19:458–468.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Artz L, Malacuso M, Brill I, et al.: Effectiveness of an intervention promoting the female condom to patients at sexually transmitted disease clinics.American Journal of Public Health. 2000,90:237–244.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Baker SA, Morrison DM, Gillmore MR, Schock MD: Sexual behaviors, substance use, and condom use in a sexually transmitted disease clinic sample.Journal of Sex Research. 1995,32:37–44.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Barrett DC, Bolan G, Joy D, et al.: Coping strategies, substance use, sexual activity, and HIV sexual risks in a sample of gay male STD patients.Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 1995,25:1058–1072.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Belcher L, Kalichman S, Topping M, et al.: A randomized trial of a brief HIV risk reduction counseling intervention for women.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 1998,66:856–861.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Breakwell GM: Risk estimation and sexual behavior.Journal of Health Psychology. 1996,1:79–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Bryan AD, Aiken LS, West SG: Increasing condom use: Evaluation of a theory-based intervention to prevent sexually transmitted diseases in young women.Health Psychology. 1996,15:371–382.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Bryan AD, Aiken LS, West SG: Young women’s condom use: The influence of acceptance of sexuality, control over the sexual encounter, and perceived susceptibility to common STDs.Health Psychology. 1997,16:468–479.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Bryan AD, Fisher JD, Fisher WA, Murray DM: Understanding condom use among heroin addicts in methadone maintenance using the information-motivation-behavioral skills model.Substance Use and Misuse. 2000,35:451–471.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Bryan AD, Fisher JD, Fisher WA: Tests of the mediational role of preparatory safer sexual behavior in the context of the theory of planned behavior.Health Psychology. 2002,21: 71–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Carey MP, Maisto SA, Kalichman SC, et al.: Enhancing motivation to reduce the risk of HIV infection for economically dis-advantaged urban women.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 1997,65:531–541.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Carey MP, Braaten LS, Maisto SA, et al.: Using information, motivational enhancement, and skills training to reduce the risk of HIV infection for low-income urban women: A second randomized clinical trial.Health Psychology. 2000,19:3–11.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Carey MP, Carey KB, Maisto SA, Gordon CM, Weinhardt LS: Assessing sexual risk behavior with the timeline followback(TLFB) approach: Continued development and psychometric evaluation with psychiatric outpatients.International Journal of STD and AIDS. 2001,12:365–375.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Carey MP, Carey KB, Maisto SA, et al.: Reducing HIV risk behavior among adults with a severe and persistent mental illness: A randomized controlled trial.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology (in press).

  22. Catania JA, Binson D, Dolcini MM, et al.: Risk factors for HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases and prevention practices among US heterosexual adults: Changes from 1990 to 1992.American Journal of Public Health. 1995,85:1492–1499.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Catania JA, Stone V, Binson D, Dolcini MM: Changes in condom use among heterosexuals in Wave 3 of the AMEN Survey.Journal of Sex Research. 1995,32:193–200.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Catania JA, Binson D, Stone V: Relationship of sexual mixing across age and ethnic groups to herpes simplex virus-2 among unmarried heterosexual adults with multiple sexual partners.Health Psychology. 1996,15:362–370.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Celentano DD, Bond KC, Lyles CM, et al.: Preventive intervention to reduce sexually transmitted infections: A field trial in the Royal Thai Army.Archives of Internal Medicine. 2000,160:525–540.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Connor M, Graham S, Moore B: Alcohol and intentions to use condoms: Applying the theory of planned behavior.Psychology and Health. 1999,14:795–812.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Cooper ML, Agocha VB, Powers AM: Motivations for condom use: Do pregnancy prevention goals undermine disease preven- tion among heterosexual young adults?Health Psychology.1999,18:464–474.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Cooper ML, Orcutt HK.: Alcohol use, condom use and partner type among heterosexual adolescents and young adults.Journal of Studies on Alcohol. 2000,61:413–419.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Coxon APM: Parallel accounts? Discrepancies between self-report (diary) and recall (questionnaire) measures of the same sexual behaviour.AIDS Care. 1999,11:221–234.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Crosby GM, Stall RD, Paul JP, Barrett DC, Midanik LT: Condom use among gay/bisexual male substance abusers using the timeline follow-back method.Addictive Behaviors. 1996,21: 249–257.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Des Jarlais DC, Perlis T, Friedman SR, et al.: Behavioral risk reduction in a declining HIV epidemic: Injection drug users in New York City, 1990–1997.American Journal of Public Health. 2000,90:1112–1116.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. de Visser RO, Smith AMA: Inconsistent users of condoms: A challenge to traditional models of health behavior.Psychology, Health, and Medicine. 2001,6:41–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. de Vroome EMM, Stroebe W, Sandfort TGM, de Wit JBF: Safer sex in social context: Individualistic and relational determinants of AIDS-preventive behavior among gay men.Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 2000,30:2322–2340.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Diaz-Loving R, Villangran-Vaquez G: The theory of reasoned action applied to condom use and request of condom use in Mexican government workers.Applied Psychology: An International Review. 1999,48:139–151.

    Google Scholar 

  35. DiClemente RJ, Wingood GM: A randomized controlled trial of an HIV sexual risk-reduction intervention for young African-American women.Journal of the American Medical Association. 1995,274:1271–1276.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Downey L, Ryan R, Roffman R, Kulich M: How could I forget? Inaccurate memories of sexually intimate moments.Journal of Sex Research. 1995,32:177–191.

    Google Scholar 

  37. Durant LE, Carey MP: Self-administered questionnaires versus face-to-face interviews in assessing sexual behavior in young women.Archives of Sexual Behavior. 2000,29:309–322.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Eldrigde GD, St. Lawrence JS, Little CE, et al.: Evaluation of an HIV risk reduction intervention for women entering inpatient substance abuse treatment.AIDS Education and Prevention. 1997,9(Suppl. A):62–76.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Elkins D, Maticka-Tyndale E, Thicumporn K, Miller P, Haswell-Elkins M: Toward reducing the spread of HIV in northeastern Thai villages: Evaluation of a village-based intervention.AIDS Education and Prevention. 1997,9:49–69.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Fernandez-Esquer ME, Krepcho MA, Freeman AC, et al.: Predictors of condom use among African American males at high risk for HIV.Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 1997,27:58–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Fishbein M, Trafimow D, Middlestadt SE, et al.: Using an AIDS KABP survey to identify determinants of condom use among sexually active adults from St. Vincent and the Grenadines.Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 1995,25:455–474.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Fishbein M, Guenther-Grey C, Johnson WD, et al.: Using a theory-based community intervention to reduce AIDS risk behaviors: The CDC’s AIDS Community Demonstration Projects. In Oskamp S, Thompson SC (eds),Understanding and Preventing HIV Risk Behavior: Safer Sex and Drug Use. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996, 177–206.

    Google Scholar 

  43. Fisher JD, Fisher WA, Misovich SJ, Kimble DL, Malloy TE: Changing AIDS risk behavior: Effects of an intervention em- phasizing AIDS risk reduction information, motivation, and behavioral skills in a college student population.Health Psychology. 1996,15:114–123.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Fisher JD, Fisher WA: The information-motivation-behavioral skills model of AIDS risk behavior change: Empirical support and application. In Oskamp S, Thompson SC (eds),Understanding and Preventing HIV Risk Behavior. Thousand Oaks,CA: Sage, 1996, 100–127.

    Google Scholar 

  45. Fisher JD, Fisher WA, Bryan AD, Misovich SJ: Information-motivation-behavioral skills model-based HIV risk behavior change intervention for inner-city high school youth.Health Psychology. 2002,21:177–186.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Ford K, Norris AE: Factors related to condom use with casual partners among urban African- American and Hispanic males.AIDS Education and Prevention. 1995,7:494–503.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Gerbert B, Bronstone A, McPhee S, Pantilat S, Allerton M: Development and testing of an HIV- risk screening instrument for use in health care settings.American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 1998,15:103–113.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Gillmore MR, Morrison DM, Richey CA, et al.: Effects of a skill-based intervention to encourage condom use among high risk heterosexually active adolescents.AIDS Education and Prevention. 1997.9(Suppl. A):22–43.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Hobfoll SE, Jackson AP, Lavin J, Johnson R, Schöder KEE: The effects and generalizability of communally-oriented HIV/AIDS prevention versus general health promotion groups for single, inner-city women in urban clinics.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 2002,70:950–960.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Jaccard J, McDonald R, Wan CK, Dittus PJ, Quinlan S: The accuracy of self-reports of condom use and sexual behavior.Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 2002,32:1863–1905.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Jemmott JB III, Jemmott LS, Fong GT: Abstinence and safer sex HIV risk-reduction interventions for African American adolescents: A randomized controlled trial.Journal of the American Medical Association. 1998,279:1529–1536.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Jemmott JB III, Jemmott LS, Fong GT, McCaffree K: Reducing HIV risk-associated behavior among African American adolescents: Testing the generality of intervention effects.American Journal of Community Psychology. 1999,27:161–187.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Kalichman SC, Sikkema KJ, Kelly JA, Bulto M: Use of a brief behavioral skills intervention to prevent HIV infection among chronic mentally ill adults.Psychiatric Services. 1995,46:275–280.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Kalichman SC, Rompa D, Coley B: Experimental component analysis of a behavioral HIV-AIDS prevention intervention for inner-city women.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 1996,64:687–693.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Kalichman SC, Rompa D, Coley B: Lack of positive outcomes from a cognitive-behavioral HIV and AIDS prevention intervention for inner-city men: Lessons from a controlled pilot study.AIDS Education and Prevention. 1997,9:299–313.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Kalichman SC, Kelly JA, Rompa D: Continued high-risk sex among HIV seropositive gay and bisexual men seeking HIV prevention services.Health Psychology. 1997,16:369–373.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Kalichman SC, Kelly JA, Stevenson LY: Priming effects of HIV risk assessment on related perceptions and behavior: An experimental field study.Health Psychology. 1997,16:369–373.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Kalichman SC, Roffman RA, Picciano JF, Bolan M: Risk for HIV infection among bisexual men seeking HIV-prevention services and risks posed to their female partners.Health Psychology. 1998,17:320–327.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Kalichman SC, Nachimson D, Cherry C, Williams E: AIDS treatment advances and behavioral prevention setbacks: Preliminary assessment of reduced perceived threat of HIV-AIDS.Health Psychology. 1998,17:546–550.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Kalichman SC: Psychological and social correlates of high-risk sexual behaviour among men and women living with HIV/AIDS.AIDS Care. 1999,11:415–427.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Kalichman SC, Cherry C, Browne-Sperling F: Effectiveness of a video-based motivational skills- building HIV risk-reduction intervention for inner-city African American men.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 1999,67:959–966.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Kalichman SC, Williams E, Nachimson D: Brief behavioural skills building intervention for female controlled methods of STD-HIV prevention: Outcomes of a randomized clinical field trial.International Journal of STD and AIDS. 1999,10:174–181.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Kalichman SC, Rompa D, Cage M., et al.: Effectiveness of an intervention to reduce HIV transmission risks in HIV-positive people.American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 2001,21:84–92.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Kamb ML, Fishbein M, Douglas JM, et al.: Efficacy of risk-reduction counseling to prevent human immunodeficiency virus and sexually transmitted diseases: A randomized controlled trial.Journal of the American Medical Association. 1998,280:1161–1167.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Kasprzyk D, Montano DE, Fishbein M: Application of an integrated behavioral model to predict condom use: A prospective study among high HIV risk groups.Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 1998,28:1557–1583.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  66. Kegeles SM, Hays RB, Coates TJ: The Mpowerment Project: A community-level HIV prevention intervention for young gaymen.American Journal of Public Health. 1996,86:1129–1136.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Kelley JL, Petry NM: HIV risk behaviors in male substance abusers with and without antisocial personality disorder.Journal of Substance Abuse and Treatment. 2000,19:59–66.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Kelly JA, Murphy DA, Sikkema KJ, et al.: Predictors of high and low levels of HIV risk behavior among adults with chronic mental illness.Psychiatric Services. 1995,46:813–818.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Kelly JA, McAuliffe TL, Sikkema KJ, et al.: Reduction in risk behavior among adults with severe mental illness who learned to advocate for HIV prevention.Psychiatric Services. 1997,48:1283–1288.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Kelly JA, Murphy DA, Sikkema KJ, et al.: Randomised, controlled, community-level HIV- prevention intervention for sexual-risk behaviour among homosexual men in US cities: Community HIV Prevention Research Collaborative.The Lancet. 1997,350:1500–1505.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Kelly JA, Kalichman SC: Reinforcement value of unsafe sex as a predictor of condom use and continued HIV/AIDS risk behavior among gay and bisexual men.Health Psychology. 1998,17:328–335.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Kwiatkowski CF, Stober DR, Booth RE, Zhang Y: Predictors of increased condom use following HIV intervention with hetero-sexually active drug-users.Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 1999,54:57–62.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Lauby JL, Smith PJ, Stark M, Person B, Adams J: A community-level HIV prevention intervention for inner-city women: Results of the Women and Infants Demonstration Projects.American Journal of Public Health. 2000,90:216–222.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Lo Conte JS, O’Leary A, Labouvie E: Psychosocial correlates of HIV-related sexual behavior in an inner-city STD clinic.Psychology and Health. 1997,12:589–601.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  75. Macaluso M, Demand MJ, Artz LM, Hook EW: Partner type and condom use.AIDS. 2000,14:537–546.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Mahoney CA, Thombs DL, Ford OJ: Heath belief and self-efficacy models: Their utility in explaining college student condom use.AIDS Education and Prevention. 1995,7:32–49.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Maticka-Tyndale E, Herold ES: Condom use on spring-break vacation: The influence of intentions, prior use, and context.Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 1999,29:1010–1027.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  78. Mayne TJ, Acree M, Chesney MA, Folkman S: HIV sexual risk behavior following bereavement in gay men.Health Psychology. 1998,17:403–411.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Mays V, Cochran SD: HIV/AIDS in the African-American community: Changing concerns, changing behaviors. In Stein M, Baum A (eds),Chronic Diseases. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 1995, 259–272.

    Google Scholar 

  80. Metzler CW, Biglan A, Noell J, Ary DV, Ochs L: A randomized controlled trial of a behavioral intervention to reduce high-risk sexual behavior among adolescents in STD clinics.Behavior Therapy. 2000,31:27–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  81. Morrill A, Ickovics JR, Golubchikov VV, Beren SE, Rodin J: Safer sex: Social and psychological predictors of behavioral maintenance and change among heterosexual women.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 1996,64:819–828.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Morrison DM, Rogers Gillmore M, Baker SA: Determinants of condom use among high-risk heterosexual adults: A test of the theory of reasoned action.Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 1995,25:651–676.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  83. National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) Multisite HIV Prevention Trial Group: The NIMH Multisite HIV Prevention Trial: Reducing HIV sexual risk behavior.Science. 1998,June 19:1889–1894.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  84. Norris AE, Ford K: Condom use by low-income African American and Hispanic youth with a well-known partner: Integrating the health belief model, theory of reasoned action, and the construct accessibility model.Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 1995,25: 1801–1830.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  85. O’Leary A, Jemmott LS, Goodhart F, Gebelt J: Effects of an institutional AIDS prevention intervention: Moderation by gender.AIDS Education and Prevention. 1996,8:516–528.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. O’Leary A, Ambrose TK, Raffaelli M, et al.: Effects of an HIV risk reduction project on sexual risk behavior of low-income STD patients.AIDS Education and Prevention. 1998,10:483–492.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Orr DP, Langefeld CD, Katz BP, Caine VA: Behavioral intervention to increase condom use among high-risk female adolescents.Journal of Pediatrics. 1996,128:288–295.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Otto-Salaj LL, Heckman TG, Stevenson LY, Kelly JA: Patterns, predictors and gender differences in HIV risk among severelymentally ill men and women.Community Mental Health Journal. 1998,34:175–190.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Otto-Salaj LL, Kelly JA, Stevenson LY, Hoffmann R, Kalichman SC: Outcomes of a randomized small-group HIV prevention intervention trial for people with serious mental illness.Community Mental Health Journal. 2001,37:123–144.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Parsons JT, Halkitis PN, Bimbi D, Borkowski T: Perceptions of the benefits and costs associated with condom use and unpro tected sex among late adolescent college students.Journal of Adolescence. 2000,23:377–391.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Reinecke J, Schmidt P, Ajzen I: Application of the theory of planned behavior to adolescents’ condom use: A panel study.Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 1996,29:749–772.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  92. Rosario M, Meyer-Bahlburg HFL, Hunter J, Gwadz M: Sexual risk behaviour of gay, lesbian, and bisexual youths in New York City: Prevalence and correlates.AIDS Education and Prevention. 1999,11:476–496.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Rotheram-Borus MJ, Gwadz M, Fernandez M, Srinivasan S: Timing of HIV interventions on reductions in sexual risk among adolescents.American Journal of Community Psychology. 1998,26:73–96.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Rotheram-Borus MJ, Lee MB, Murphy DA, et al.: Efficacy of a preventive intervention for youths living with HIV.American Journal of Public Health. 2001,91:400–405.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Sabogal F, Catania JA: HIV risk factors, condom use, and HIV antibody testing among heterosexual Hispanics: The NationalAIDS Behavioral Survey (NABS).Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences. 1996,18:367–391.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Sanderson CA, Jemmott JB: Moderation and mediation of HIV-prevention interventions: Relationship status, intentions, and condom use among college students.Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 1996,26:2073–2099.

    Google Scholar 

  97. Sanderson CA, Maibach EW: Predicting condom use in African American STD patients: The role of two types of outcome expectancies.Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 1996,26:1495–1509.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  98. Scheidt DM, Windle M: Individual and situational markers of condom use and sex with nonprimary partners among alcoholic inpatients: Findings from the ATRISK study.Health Psychology. 1996,15:185–192.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Schroder KEE, Hobfoll SE, Jackson AP, Lavin J: Proximal and distal predictors of AIDS risk behaviors among inner-city African American and European American women.Journal of Health Psychology. 2001,6:169–190.

    Google Scholar 

  100. Sikkema KJ, Winett RA, Lombard DN: Development and evaluation of an HIV-risk reduction program for female college students.AIDS Education and Prevention. 1995,7:145–159.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Sikkema KJ, Kelly JA, Winett RA, et al.: Outcomes of a randomized community-level HIV prevention intervention for women living in 18 low-income housing developments.American Journal of Public Health. 2000,90:57–63.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Sneed CD, Chin D, Rotheram-Borus MJ, et al.: Test-retest reliability for self-reports of sexual behavior among Thai and Korean respondents.AIDS Education and Prevention. 2001,13:302–310.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Sohler N, Colson PW, Meyer-Bahlburg HFL, Susser E: Reliability of self-reports about sexual risk behavior for HIV among homeless men with severe mental illness.Psychiatric Services. 2000,51:814–816.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Stein JA, Nyamathi A, Kington R, Corporation TR: Change in AIDS risk behaviors among impoverished minority women after a community-based cognitive-behavioral outreach program.Journal of Community Psychology. 1997,25:519–533.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  105. St. Lawrence JS, Brasfield TL, Jefferson KW, et al.: Cognitive-behavioral intervention to reduce African American adolescents’ risk for HIV infection.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 1995,63:221–237.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. St. Lawrence JS, Scott CP: Examination of the relationship between African American adolescents’ condom use at sexual onset and later sexual behavior: Implications for condom distribution programs.AIDS Education and Prevention. 1996,8:258–266.

    Google Scholar 

  107. Stone VE, Catania JA, Binson D: Measuring change in sexual behavior: Concordance between survey measures.Journal of Sex Research. 1999,36:102–108.

    Google Scholar 

  108. Susser E, Valencia E, Miller M, et al.: Sexual behavior of homeless mentally ill men at risk for HIV.American Journal of Psychiatry. 1995,152:583–587.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Susser E, Valencia E, Berkman A., et al.: Human immunodeficiency virus sexual risk reduction in homeless men withmental illness.Archives of General Psychiatry. 1998,55:266–272.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Voluntary HIV-1 Counseling and Testing Efficacy Study Group: Efficacy of voluntary HIV-1 counseling and testing in individuals and couples in Kenya, Tanzania, and Trinidad.The Lancet. 2000,356:103–112.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  111. Thompson SC, Anderson K, Freedman D, Swan J: Illusions of safety in a risky world: A study of college students’ condom use.Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 1996,26:189–210.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  112. Valleroy LA, MacKellar DA, Karon JM, et al.: HIV prevalence and associated risks in young men who have sex with men.Journal of the American Medical Association. 2000,284:198–204.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Vanable PA, Ostrow DG, McKirnan DJ, Taywaditep KJ, Hope BA: Impact of combination therapies on HIV risk perceptions and sexual risk among HIV-positive and HIV-negative gay and bisexual men.Health Psychology. 2000,19:134–145.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Wang J, Siegal HA, Falck RS, Carlson RG, Rahman A: Evaluation of HIV risk reduction intervention programs via latent growth model.Evaluation Review. 1999,23: 648–662.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Weinhardt LS, Carey MP, Carey KB: HIV-risk behavior and the public health context of HIV/AIDS among women living with a severe and persistent mental illness.Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 1998,186:276–282.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Weinhardt LS, Carey MP, Carey KB, Verdecias RN: Increasing assertiveness skills to reduce HIV risk among women living with a severe and persistent mental illness.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 1998,66:680–684.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Weinhardt LS, Carey MP, Maisto SA, et al.: Reliability of the timeline follow-back sexual behavior interview.Annals of Behavioral Medicine. 1998,20:25–30.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Weinhardt LS, Carey KB, Carey MP: HIV risk sensitization following a detailed sexual behavior interview: A preliminary investigation.Journal of Behavioral Medicine. 2000,23:393–398.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Wilson TE, Jaccard J, Levinson RA, Minkoff H, Endias R: Testing for HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases: Implications for risk behavior in women.Health Psychology. 1996,15:252- 260.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Zamboni BD, Crawford I, Williams PG: Examining communication and assertiveness as predictors of condom use: Implications for HIV prevention.AIDS Education and Prevention. 2000,12:492–504.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Catania JA, Gibson DR, Chitwood DD, Coates TJ: Methodological problems in AIDS behavioral research: Influences on measurement error and participation bias in studies of sexual behavior.Psychological Bulletin. 1990,108:339–362.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Catania JA, Binson D, van Der Straten A, Stone V.: Methodological research on sexual behavior in the AIDS era.AnnualReview of Sex Research. 1995,6:77–125.

    Google Scholar 

  123. Weinhardt LS, Forsyth AD, Carey MP, Jaworski BC, Durant LE: Reliability and validity of self-report measures of HIV-re-lated sexual behavior: Progress since 1990 and recommendations for research and practice.Archives of Sexual Behavior. 1998,27:155–180.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Sheeran P, Abraham C, Orbell S: Psychosocial correlates of heterosexual condom use: A meta-analysis.Psychological Bulletin. 1999,125:90–132.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Weinhardt LS, Carey MP, Carey KB.: HIV risk reduction for the seriously mentally ill: Pilot investigation and call for research.Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry. 1997,28:87–95.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Fishbein M, Pequegnat W: Evaluating AIDS prevention interventions using behavioral and biological outcome measures.Sexually Transmitted Diseases. 2000,27:101–110.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Susser E, Desvarieux M, Wittkowski KM: Reporting sexual risk behavior for HIV: A practical risk index and a method for improving risk indices.American Journal of Public Health. 1998,88:671–674.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Pinkerton SD, Abramson PR: An alternative model of the reproductive rate of HIV infection. Formulation, evaluation, and implications for risk reduction interventions.Evaluation Review. 1994,18:371–388.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  129. Pinkerton SD, Abramson PR: Evaluating the risks: A Bernoulli process model of HIV infection and risk reduction.Evaluation Review. 1993,17:504–528.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  130. Carey MP, Morrison-Beedy D, Carey KB, et al.: Psychiatric outpatients report their experiences as participants in a randomized clinical trial.Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 2001,189:299–306.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Ngugi EN, Plummer FA, Simonsen JN, et al.: Prevention of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus in Africa: Effectiveness of condom promotion and health education among prostitutes.The Lancet. 1988,15:887–890.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  132. Davis KR, Weller SC: The effectiveness of condoms in reducing heterosexual transmission of HIV.Family Planning Perspectives. 1999,31: 272–279.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Fritz RB: AIDS knowledge, self-esteem, perceived AIDS risk, and condom use among female commercial sex workers.Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 1998,28:888–911.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  134. Fisher JD, Fisher WA: Changing AIDS-risk behavior.Psychological Bulletin. 1992,111:455–474.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Cameron AC, Trivedi PK:Regression Analysis of Count Data. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  136. Lindsey JK:Modeling Frequency and Count Data. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  137. Long JS:Regression Models for Categorical and Limited Dependent Variables. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997.

    Google Scholar 

  138. Montgomery DC, Peck EA, Vining GG:Introduction to LinearRegression Analysis (3rd Ed.). New York: Wiley, 2001.

    Google Scholar 

  139. National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) Multisite HIV Prevention Trial Group: The NIMH Multisite HIV PreventionTrial: Reducing HIV sexual risk behavior.Science. 1998,June 19:1889–1894.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  140. Tabachnick BG, Fidell LS:Using Multivariate Statistics (2nd Ed.). New York: Harper Collins, 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  141. Stevens J:Applied Multivariate Statistics for the Social Sciences (3rd Ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  142. Cohen J, Cohen P:Applied Multiple Regression/Correlation Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences (2nd Ed.). Hillsdale, NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 1983.

    Google Scholar 

  143. Cronbach LJ, Furby L: How should we measure “change”—Or should we?Psychological Bulletin. 1970,74: 68–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  144. Huck SW, McLean RA: Using a repeated measures ANOVA to analyze the data from a pretest-posttest design: A potentially confusing task.Psychological Bulletin. 1975,82:511–518.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  145. Jennings E: Models for pretest-posttest data: Repeated measures ANOVA revisited.Journal of Educational Statistics. 1988,13:273–280.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  146. Llabre MM, Spitzer SB, Saab PG, Ironson GH, Schneiderman N: The reliability and specificity of delta versus residualized change as measures of cardiovascular reactivity to behavioral challenges.Psychophysiology. 1991,28:701–711.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. Rogosa D, Brandt D, Zimowski M: A growth curve approach to the measurement of change.Psychological Bulletin. 1982,92:726–748.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  148. Maris E: Covariance adjustment versus gain scores—Revisited.Psychological Methods. 1998,3:309–327.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  149. Malgady RG, Colon-Malgady G: Comparing the reliability of difference scores and residuals in analysis of covariance.Educational and Psychological Measurement. 1991,51:803–807.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  150. Rovine MJ, Molenaar PCM: A structural equation modeling approach to the general linear mixed model. In Collins LM, Sayer AG. (eds),New Methods for the Analysis of Change. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2001, 67–96.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  151. Raudenbush SW: Toward a coherent framework for comparing trajectories of individual change. In Collins LM, Sayer AG. (eds),New Methods for the Analysis of Change. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2001, 33–64.

    Google Scholar 

  152. Gardner W, Mulvey EP, Shaw EC: Regression analyses of counts and rates: Poisson, overdispersed Poisson, and negative binomial models.Psychological Bulletin. 1995,118:392–404.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  153. Zeger SL, Liang K-Y: Longitudinal data analysis for discrete and continuous outcomes.Biometrics. 1986,42:121–130.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  154. Liang K-L, Zeger SL: Longitudinal data analysis using generalized linear models.Biometrika. 1986,73:13–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  155. Neuhaus JM: Statistical methods for longitudinal and clustered designs with binary responses.Statistical Methods in Medical Research. 1992,1:249–273.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  156. Neuhaus JM, Kalbfleisch JD, Hauck WW: A comparison of cluster-specific and population- averaged approaches for analyzing correlated binary data.International Statistical Review. 1991,59:25–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  157. Raudenbush SW, Bryk AS:Hierarchical Linear Models: Applications and Data Analysis Methods (2nd Ed.). Thousand Oaks,CA: Sage, 2002.

    Google Scholar 

  158. Littell RC, Milliken GA, Stroup WW, Wolfinger RD:SAS System for Mixed Models. Cary, NC: SAS Institute, 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  159. Hays WL:Statistics (5th Ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace, 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  160. Fox J:Multiple and Generalized Nonparametric Regression (Sage University Papers Series. Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences, No. 131). London: Sage, 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  161. Green PJ, Silverman BW:Nonparametric Regression and Generalized Linear Models: A Roughness Penalty Approach (Monographs on Statistics and Applied Probability, Vol. 58). Boca Raton, FL: Chapman & Hall/CRC, 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  162. Jöreskog K, Sörbom D:LISREL 8: User’s Reference Guide. Chicago: Scientific Software, 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  163. Bentler PM, Wu EJC:EQSfor Windows Users’Guide. Encino, CA: Multivariate Software, 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  164. O’Connell AA: Methods for modeling ordinal outcome variables.Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development. 2000,33:170–193.

    Google Scholar 

  165. Agresti A:An Introduction to Categorical Data Analysis. New York: Wiley, 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  166. Agresti A: Tutorial on modeling ordered categorical response data.Psychological Bulletin. 1989,105:290–301.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  167. West SG, Finch JF, Curran PJ: Structural equation models with non-normal variables: Problems and remedies. In Hoyle RH (ed),Structural Equation Modeling: Concepts, Issues, and Applications. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1995, 56–75.

    Google Scholar 

  168. Muthen BO: Latent variable mixture modeling. In Marcoulides GA, Schumacker RE. (eds),New Developments and Techniques in Structural Equation Modeling. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 2001, 1–33.

    Google Scholar 

  169. Muthen BO: Second-generation structural equation modeling with a combination of categorical and continuous latent variables: New opportunities for latent class-latent growth modeling. In Collins LM, Sayer AG (eds),New Methods for the Analysis of Change. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2001, 289–322.

    Google Scholar 

  170. Jo B, Muthen BO: Modeling of intervention effects with non-compliance: A latent variable approach for randomized trials. In Marcoulides GA (ed),New Developments and Techniques in Structural Equation Modeling. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 2001, 57–87.

    Google Scholar 

  171. Jöreskog K, Sörbom D:PRELIS 2: User’s Reference Guide. Chicago: Scientific Software, 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  172. Kline RB:Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling. New York: Guilford, 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  173. Bentler PM: Causal modeling: New interfaces and new statistics. In Adair JG, Belanger D, Dion KL (eds),Causal Modeling: New Interfaces and New Statistics: Vol. 1. Social, Personal, and Cultural Aspects. Hove, England: Psychology Press/Erlbaum, 1998, 353–370.

    Google Scholar 

  174. SPSS:SPSS Exact Tests 7.0f or Windows. Chicago: SPSS, 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  175. Efron B, Tibshirani RJ:An Introduction to the Bootstrap. New York: Chapman & Hall, 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  176. Mooney CZ, Duval RD:Bootstrapping: A Nonparametric Approach to Statistical Inference. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  177. Efron B, Gong G: A leisurely look at the bootstrap, the jackknife, and cross-validation.American Statistician. 1983,37:36–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  178. Lunneborg CE, Tousignant JP: Efron’s bootstrap with application to the repeated measures design.Multivariate Behavioral Research. 1985,20:161–178.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  179. Lunneborg CE:Data Analysis by Resampling: Concepts and Applications. Pacific Grove, CA: Duxbury, 1999.

    Google Scholar 

  180. Bollen KA, Stine RA: Bootstrapping goodness-of-fit measures in structural equation models. In Bollen KA, Long JS (eds),Testing Structural Equation Models. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1993, 111–135.

    Google Scholar 

  181. Good P:Permutation Tests: A Practical Guide to Resampling Methods for Testing Hypotheses (2nd Ed.). New York: Springer, 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  182. Good P:Extensions of the Concept of Exchangeability and Their Applications to Testing Hypotheses. Retrieved July 10, 2002, from http://users.oco.net/drphilgood/index1.htm

  183. Belli R, Schwarz N, Singer E, Talarico J: Decomposition can harm the accuracy of behavioural frequency reports.Applied Cognitive Psychology. 2000,14:295–308.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  184. Schwarz N: Self-reports: How the questions shape the answers.American Psychologist. 1999,54:93–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  185. Rothman AJ, Haddock G, Schwarz N: “How many partners is too many?” Shaping perceptions of personal vulnerability.Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 2001,31:2195–2214.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  186. Schwarz N, Oyserman D: Asking questions about behavior: Cognition, communication, and questionnaire construction.American Journal of Evaluation. 2001,22:127–160.

    Google Scholar 

  187. Hayes AF: Permutation test is not distribution-free: Testing H0: ρ = 0.Psychological Methods. 1996,1:184–198.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Center for Health and Behavior, Syracuse University, 430 Huntington Hall, 13244-2340, Syracuse, NY

    Kerstin E. E. Schroder Ph.D., Michael P. Carey Ph.D. & Peter A. Vanable Ph.D.

Authors
  1. Kerstin E. E. Schroder Ph.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Michael P. Carey Ph.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Peter A. Vanable Ph.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Michael P. Carey Ph.D..

Additional information

This work was supported by National Institute of Mental Health Grants R01-MH54929 and K02-MH01582 to Michael P. Carey. We thank Kate B. Carey, Martin J. Sliwinski, Dan Neal, and the anonymous reviewers for their comments on earlier versions of this article.

About this article

Cite this article

Schroder, K.E.E., Carey, M.P. & Vanable, P.A. Methodological challenges in research on sexual risk behavior: I. Item content, scaling, and data analytical options. ann. behav. med. 26, 76–103 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1207/S15324796ABM2602_02

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1207/S15324796ABM2602_02

Keywords

Search

Navigation