Introduction

Digital game-based language learning has revolutionized learning, and numerous cutting-edge applications have been developed for online gaming and have been assimilated for second-language (L2) learning. Game-based learning techniques take on two forms, namely, traditional or digital games. Traditional games engage learners within the real-life setting. Digital games apply IT to attain desirable learning outcomes and higher levels of achievement (Zeynep, 2018). This study focuses on digital game-based applications for second-language acquisition (SLA) as a means to offset adults’ challenges experienced in learning Maltese as a second language (ML2) (Żammit, 2021a, 2021b) or any other L2.

The phrase ‘information technology’ (IT), in its contemporary definition, first appeared in a 1958 article published in the Harvard Business Review (Braun et al., 2020). The invention of IT was a major turning point in the history of education. Game- and mobile-based learning have contributed to a world-changing effect within the realm of systematic instruction and acquisition of knowledge (Braun et al., 2020).

The advent of the digital era introduced new modes of teaching as a means to keep up with the growing need and use of digital technologies (Braun et al., 2020). As a result, educators and software engineers have combined to produce learning applications to improve the overall teaching process and work shoulder to shoulder with the ever-growing use of IT.

The EULALIA (Enhancing University Language courses with an App powered by game-based Learning and tangible user Interface Activities) project aimed to improve the teaching techniques of four university language courses for Erasmus students in Italy, Malta, Poland and Spain by designing advanced and efficient learning tools based on mobile-based learning and game-based learning frameworks, as well as the use of tangible user interfaces. The current research focuses on the benefits and applications of game and mobile-based technology, more specifically for international adults learning Maltese as a second language (ML2). This article will cover a summary of the research and supporting evidence regarding game-based learning, a review of methodology to analyse the feasibility of game-based technology, an analysis based on the findings, recommendations for future applications and an app review.

The academic literature offers a plethora of information about the use of games and mobile technology in language learning. Simultaneously, little is known about how these tools could be applied in the context of learning ML2. The current study was designed to examine whether game-based language learning could assist adults in becoming proficient in Maltese. Understanding how games could be used to improve ML2 learning might be beneficial from both theoretical and practical perspectives. In addition to treat an evident research gap concerning the use of game-based learning in the context of learning Maltese, this study might provide stakeholders with practical advice for developing favourable environments for international adult ML2 learners.

Literature review

The concept of game-based learning

Game-based learning encompasses utilising gaming principles and directly applying them to real-life activities and settings to engage end-users. According to Hartt et al. (2020), game-based learning is an emergent learning technique that has the capacity to increase student motivation, emotional engagement and enjoyment. Similar outcomes of this instrument are also cited by Molin (2017) and Papadakis (2018). Attracting and maintaining student motivation is one of the main challenges for teachers in a traditional classroom setting. An analysis of the literature shows that game-based teaching creates an active environment where students are motivated to learn in line with the concept of guided discovery (Hartt et al., 2020; Papadakis, 2018). According to Molin (2017), game-based learning is designed to strike a balance between the subject matter, content to be learned, gameplay and the future capacity for the user to retain and apply information in the real-world setting. These cognitive capabilities are very important for adult learners, especially in retaining and applying the new L2 knowledge that is being learned (Żammit, 2021a, 2021b).

Advantages of game and mobile-based learning

The academic literature cites many advantages of game and mobile-based learning. Interactive and entertaining games promote language acquisition and improve learners’ comprehension skills (Dixon et al., 2022; Hung et al., 2018). Cues and practice enabled by mobile-based digital language learning could enhance working memory, improve vocabulary, and increase students’ self-confidence in expressing themselves in L2 (Klimova, 2020; Qureshi & Aljanadbah, 2021). The engaging and interactive nature of games simplifies language learning and facilitates the acquisition of new words (Purgina et al., 2019). In general, it could be inferred from the literature that learners could benefit from game-based learning by increasing students’ motivation and creating a favourable environment for SLA.

Owing to the growing popularity of educational games, it seems natural that many studies describe the advantages of game and mobile-based language learning. In accordance with Kukulska-Hulme and Viberg (2018), game-based tasks support collaborative learning through socialisation and active participation among language learners, thus improving learners’ oral and written communication skills that serve as the foundation for expressing thoughts, information, and feelings (Abdikarimova et al., 2021). Games enhance orthographic awareness in language learning, assisting with the development of word-specific representations in memory (Zarić et al., 2021). The literature states that this effect could occur through the development of phonics (Holz et al., 2018) and the promotion of individual learning (Soltanlou et al., 2017). There is no consistency in the literature concerning the ways in which educational games improve orthographic awareness of students, but scientists agree that the potential of game and mobile-based language learning in this field is significant (Abdikarimova et al., 2021).

Improved understanding of semantics is another well-known outcome of language learning. It could be inferred from the studies by Gozcu and Caganaga (2016) and Usai et al. (2017) that the engaging nature of games is the main reason behind their impressive effectiveness in enhancing the students’ understanding of semantics. Such an effect empowers learners to understand the contexts of words, sentence relationships, word meanings and discourse (Alsayed, 2019; Idris et al., 2020). It seems justified to state that the interactive and enjoyable nature of games also could explain the positive effect of game-based learning on students’ memory capacity (Chang et al., 2018). This effect is critical since improved working memory contributes to language comprehension, language production, vocabulary acquisition, and working motivation (Schwering & MacDonald, 2020; Wu & Huang, 2017).

A possible explanation for the efficacy of game-based language learning is that games allow for the combination of conventional and digital learning benefits, resulting in long-term and synergistic benefits for both parties (Xu et al., 2019). This notion is consistent with the findings of Klimova (2020) and Qureshi and Aljanadbah (2021) concerning the potential of games to improve learning by enhancing students' learning motivation.

In comparison to traditional learning, game-based language learning has the distinct advantage of enhancing students' soft skills and utilizing them to enhance learning. It stimulates learners' problem-solving abilities (Auer & Tsiatsos, 2020), reflective thinking abilities (Coleman & Money, 2020), and other vital competencies that might boost a learner's global competitiveness (Coleman & Money, 2020). Game-based learning places learning in a social context, that facilitates learning while also improving students' soft skills (Auer & Tsiatsos, 2020; Breien & Wasson, 2021; Dowell et al., 2019). At the same time, an emphasis on soft skills does not interfere with the acquisition of language skills because most classroom games are explicitly intended for SLA and cover some specific areas of language learning, such as content production (Short, 2017). According to the reasons presented above, game-based language learning provides significant advantages in terms of hard and soft skill acquisition.

It is reasonable to assume that stakeholders will continue to incorporate educational games into language learning due to their positive impact on various behavioural, cognitive, perceptual, and motivational outcomes in learners (Reinders, 2017). To meet the ever-increasing demand for SLA, innovative and inspiring teaching and learning methods stimulated by various technological applications are required (Alyaz & Genc, 2016; Anastasiadis et al., 2018; Aqib et al., 2018). Digital games, if implemented appropriately, may not only improve students' skills but also handle various challenges in the educational process, such as difficulty in assessing students' needs and disseminating course content and materials (Hung et al., 2018). According to research, digital games are a vital tool that will most likely be employed in the majority of educational institutions to facilitate and enhance language learning.

Disadvantages of game and mobile-based learning

While existing research characterizes game-based learning as a promising educational tool, it also lists certain downsides of this approach. Due to the intricacy of games and their engaging plots, learners might become distracted from reaching ideal learning objectives (Ebrahimzadeh & Alavi, 2017). Learning based on digital games is more expensive than traditional learning because of the high expenses of development, technical support, and staff training (Fotaris et al., 2017). Due to this reason, institutions are opposed to game-based learning, as they require additional human and non-human resources (Pinto & Ferreira, 2017). Zhang et al. (2018) and Shi et al. (2019) purport that game-based learning is not yet fully acceptable within mainstream education since its integration and utility are expensive.

The use of game and mobile-based learning for language promotes the creation of a digital divide. Learning software applications possess the potential to create a huge rift between students who have access to computers and digital networks and those who do not. Game-based learning platforms require consistent access to modern information and communications technology for their use (Walker et al., 2020). As such, an element of social inequality is created since digital resources for learning cannot be distributed evenly to all learners. Regional and demographic differences have a direct effect on learning due to the digital divide created through game-based language-learning applications (Chen et al., 2019). Walker et al. (2020) explain that game-based learning applications may contribute to the expansion of the digital divide.

Game-based learning is centred on key features ranging from learning in varying and attractive scenarios, overcoming various problems to creating a positive and interesting environment (Govender & Arnedo-Moreno, 2021). Thus, the development of efficient and effective digital learning platforms requires considerable time and financial investment. Digital gaming applications require the intake of a collection of articles, videos and traditional classroom concepts and merging all the relevant factors with gaming principles. According to Govender and Arnedo-Moreno (2021), digital game-based language learning involves the use of feedback, themes and points that boost vocabulary acquisition and retention for learners. As a result, formulators encounter deficiencies in efficacy patterns due to the large amounts of information received and utilised in the development stages, calling for the use of error detection that slows down and creates a more tedious game creation (Govender & Arnedo-Moreno, 2021).

According to the arguments presented in this section, most research on the problems of game-based learning focus on technical challenges related to the integration of educational games in language learning and the high costs of developing, employing, and supporting software. Furthermore, many institutions are reluctant to employ digital games since they require additional human and non-human resources and an organizational shift to properly embrace game-based learning. It is crucial to note that, while all of these issues are significant, none of them underline the inherent limitations of game-based learning in terms of its inability to deliver optimal language proficiency. As a consequence, it is reasonable to assume that all of these challenges could be effectively solved over time.

Application of tangible and non-tangible user interface activities in SLA

A tangible user interface (TUI) is a digital user interface whereby an individual interacts directly with the physical environment and physical objects. According to Bong et al. (2018), TUIs play a major role in providing both physical representations and controls necessary for the interaction of digital information. On the flip side, nontangible user interaction does not include a physical presence, and the user cannot physically touch and interact directly with the software application. Suhardi and Rizkavirwan (2021) explain that non-tangible elements of interaction are commonly utilised in creating a virtual application with the intention of providing a response without physical contact.

TUIs allow the user to manipulate physical objects and enhance learning initiatives, as they promote active learning, student engagement, and multisensory and collaborative interaction when used alongside traditional classroom teaching (De Raffaele et al., 2017). TUIs have attracted widespread interest but have not yet been implemented widely for learning due to a gap in research and knowledge (De Raffaele et al., 2017). The theoretical perspective points towards the beneficial nature of merging physical interaction with learning as a means of creating deeper learning that students can use to supplement classroom learning. According to Jafri et al. (2017), the learning process is improved through the spatial awareness that TUIs create for concepts and subconcepts. Spatial awareness is critical for L2 adult learning, as it provides the cognitive triggers that enhance SLA (Korman et al., 2019). Jafri et al. (2017) point out that TUIs reinforce the elements of spatial awareness and shape the perception necessary for language learning.

The EULALIA initiative, founded in 2019, integrates elements of TUIs as a means to create and improve international language learning for adults. This initiative merges the concepts of mobile and game-based learning with TUIs as part of a methodology that in turn promotes the development of observable output. The outputs include the development of TUIs and mobile-based learning for use in SLA production of authoring tools for previously developed interfaces, creation of hybrid games and applications for SLA, creation of a multi-linguistic library of applications, and promotion of creativity and innovation in the realm of the game and mobile-based language learning. However, the app provided in this study did not use any TUI.

Research questions

The following were the research questions for this study to explore if game-based learning can facilitate SLA for adults and enhance their digital skills:

  1. i.

    Do game and mobile-based applications have effects on Maltese language proficiency?

  2. ii.

    Do game and mobile-based applications have effects on L2 learners’ digital skills?

Methodology

Research design

In this study, the researcher employed a quantitative research approach. According to Ahmad et al. (2019), a quantitative methodology does not allow delving into respondents' profound perceptions, sentiments, and emotions, but it assists to measure variables of interest and explore their relationship. The purpose of this study was to investigate the impacts of mobile game-based applications. The formulation of the research questions implies that a quantitative methodology was required to assess the impact of educational games on learners’ ML2 learning.

Participants

The participant pool consisted of 52 international students for the pre-survey and 32 students for the post-survey. The participants were chosen at random across a pool of international students. All the selected students were ML2 adult learners, as this was the main focus group for the study. The participants were divided into two groups. The first group comprised 28 students for the pre-survey and nine students for the post-survey, who were part of the test group, as they used the app. The second group, referred to as the reference group, comprised 24 students for the pre-survey and 23 students for the post-survey who did not use the app. The reason for the decline in participants, especially for the test group, could have been due to many factors, such as the questionnaire being distributed at the end of the course and not during a lesson, and some students may have withdrawn from the ML2 course or avoided participating in the surveys since participation was voluntary.

The app in question was designed by a group of educators who were coordinated by four EULALIA members from the University of Malta to support L2 learning and teaching with the additional benefits of improving Maltese proficiency, digital skills, understanding Maltese culture at a deeper level, and motivating and engaging ML2 learners.

Measurements

The pre-test and post-test questionnaires comprised a series of questions concerning the participants' demographics, language proficiency, cultural awareness, communication with locals, the course content and digital skills. The two factors that were analyzed using the independent sample t-test method were the participants' opinions of their Maltese language proficiency level and digital abilities. This method was employed to distinguish between the effects of ML2 game-based learning on test and reference group participants.

The EULALIA project organizers decided to employ the 10-point scale in this research, however any discussion of its reliability or validity is impossible since a 10-point scale is a data collection instrument that asks participants to rate something on a range of "1" to "10."

Data collection

Pre-survey and post-survey methods were utilized for data collection. Both the reference and test groups were asked similar questions before and after the language course. The only difference between the groups was that the test group participants used the language-learning application alongside the course, while the reference group did not use the game-based language-learning application. Only the Test group was required to use the app once in class for 15 min, whereas the Reference group did not use it. The Test group participants could have used the app when they wanted and learned the Maltese imperative, prepositions, vocabulary about vegetables and names of kitchen furniture, utensils, and cuttlery, as well as some culture about the Maltese traditional recipe of the widow's soup and the symbols that they needed to press when using the app, which included the symbols of the George Cross, the Maltese flag, the Republic of Malta, and the coat of arms of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta.

A Likert scale assessing agreeableness, neutral and preferred, and a ten-point scale provided by EULALIA coordinators were used for the questionnaires in both the pre-survey (see Appendix 1) and post-survey. The pre- and post-survey techniques were carried out in accordance with the EULALIA Project, which sought to improve learning methodologies for university language entities in Malta, Italy, Spain and Poland. The project is primarily concerned with the notion of mobile and game-based learning, focussing on Erasmus students. The fact that the surveys were administered by EULALIA developers as part of a project financed by the Erasmus + Programme and the European Commission implies that the measurements used in these surveys were valid and reliable. The surveys contained a series of questions about enrolled students from the reference and test groups' cultural knowledge, language proficiency, digital skills, and other competencies. The current study focused on elements linked to students' digital skills and language proficiency since these factors were critical for addressing the research questions.

Whereas digital abilities were measured using a 10-point Likert scale, language proficiency was measured using the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) scale from A1 to C2. As a result, the researcher converted this scale into a 6-point scale (A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, C2) so that it could be used in statistical testing.

Similar questions were given to both the test and reference groups. The questions focused on the elements of culture learned by the end of the language course, the level of digital skills gained and the evolution of digital skills over the length of the language course. Similarly, the questions within the post-survey were based on either the ten-point Likert scale, measure of agreeableness, preference and simple yes or no answers required for the responses. The pre- and post-surveys were selected to critically assess the opinions and advancements of international students learning ML2. The questions were geared to assess and understand an in-depth view of the overall efficacy of digital tools in language learning. These questions were similar to offset time constraints, which might have affected the validity of the data collected.

All participants were asked for consent prior to the survey, and the data provided were held with the strictest level of confidentiality since some personal information was collected. The personal information consisted of the age and the languages previously spoken to identify any difference between the participants’ age groups and attitudes towards modern digital tools and the effect that a first language may have on learning an L2 in adult learners.

Justification of methodology

Questionnaires were the most viable and reliable data collection method for this study. A questionnaire, as a mode of collection, is a fundamental way of gathering data within the linguistic spectrum (Boberg, 2017). A myriad of advantages can be derived from questionnaires boosting the validation of the study. First, the questionnaires offset research expenses since they are affordable and inexpensive in nature to gather qualitative and quantitative data. Insights generated from questionnaires are quicker to generate in comparison to other forms of data collection, easing the overall research process (Boberg, 2017). The questionnaire technique provides an avenue to generate information from a large audience or a larger data set, making it possible to gain the views of a large number of international students participating in this study. The element of comparability that questionnaires contribute came in handy in investigating the effects digital tools have on students before and after the language course using the pre- and post-survey.

Analysis and discussion

Pre-survey

The pre-survey was completed by 52 ML2 students from the University of Malta who were studying various courses, including Maltese, as a foreign language. On a scale of 1–10, the 28 test group respondents who were studying Maltese at various levels ranging from A1 to B2 assessed their knowledge of Maltese culture at 6.04, and their digital skills at 7.37. Eight students at level A1 (6) evaluated their Maltese cultural knowledge almost the same as 17 students at level A2 (6.2) but higher than two students at level B1 (4.5). There was just one student at level B2 in the test group, and s/he did not rank their Maltese cultural knowledge. Students at level A1 evaluated their digital abilities higher than those at level A2 (6.82), while students at level A2 rated their digital skills higher than those at level B1 (5.0). Student at level B2 evaluated their digital abilities as the best, with a score of 9.0. (see Fig. 1).

Fig. 1
figure 1

Current knowledge of Maltese culture and current digital skills of the test group pre-survey

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The same trends were observed for the 24 reference group participants. The reference group respondents were learning Maltese at various levels ranging from A1 to C2 except level B2, who assessed their knowledge of Maltese culture at 7.0 on a scale of 1–10, while their digital skills were rated at 7.58. Seven level A1 students assessed their Maltese cultural knowledge at the same level as the 12 level A2 students (7.0) but higher than the three level B1 students (6.0). A student at level C1 evaluated their knowledge as the highest, with a score of 9.0, and another student at level C2 rated their knowledge as the highest runner-up, with a score of 8.0. Students at level A1 (8.57) evaluated their digital abilities higher than those at level A2 (7.17), while students at level A2 rated their digital skills higher than those at level B1 (6.3). A C1 student evaluated their digital abilities as the highest, with a score of 9.0, and a student at C2 rated their digital skills as the highest runner-up at 8.0 (see Fig. 2).

Fig. 2
figure 2

Current knowledge of Maltese culture and current digital skills of the reference group pre-survey

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The participants were questioned about their expectations for the cultural components included in the ML2 course. The inclusion of the seven proposed cultural characteristics (i.e. local cuisine, geography, history, literature, sports, values, differences in pragmatics) was supported by the majority of students in both the test and reference groups, with all aspects scoring more than 65% agree/strongly agree. History was the most preferred component by 25 of the 28 test group respondents, while sports was the least preferred by a total of 19 people. Sports was similarly identified as the least preferred component by 16 of the 24 reference group members, while literature and geography were chosen as the most preferred characteristics by 20 of the 24 reference group participants (see Tables 1 and 2).

Table 1 What the test group participants expected to be taught after their ML2 course
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Table 2 What the reference group participants expected to be taught after their ML2 course
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The participants were also asked to identify knowledge that they would acquire at course completion. The test group preferred navigation in Malta (93%), followed by famous persons (75%), university history (68%) and finding their way around the campus (61%). The reference group had comparable replies, with knowledge of famous persons (88%) being chosen above navigation in Malta (83%) (see Table 3).

Table 3 Depicting the level of agreeableness over four areas before taking the ML2 course (pre-survey)
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Both groups agreed with the introduction of digital tools to improve ML2 teaching and learning. Both groups expected their digital abilities to improve throughout the course of the language learning course (79%).

Post-survey

Regarding the post-survey data, nine participants from the test group were willing to participate in the questionnaire. The test group’s respondent knowledge of Maltese culture stood at 7.89 after taking the language course, while their digital skills were at 9.2 on a scale of 1–10 by the end of the course.

The reference group, consisting of 23 participants, rated their knowledge of Maltese culture at 7.1, while their digital skills stood at 7.1 after the language-learning course. With reference to the knowledge acquired after course completion, out of the test group participants, 75% were able to navigate Malta, 77% were able to adequately find their way around campus, and 44% were able to name at least one famous person from Malta and know about Maltese university history. In the reference group, 66% agreed or strongly agreed that the language course improved their knowledge of Maltese university history and found their way around campus, and 57% agreed that the language course enabled them to navigate around Malta and name at least one famous person from the area (see Table 4).

Table 4 Illustration of the level of agreeableness after the language course (post-survey)
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Eighty-eight percent of the test group participants agreed that digital tools should be introduced to improve ML2 teaching and learning. One hundred percent of the reference group agreed that digital tools are a good method to improve teaching and learning after taking the Maltese language course.

The descriptive statistics for all variables utilized in the study are provided in Table 5. It demonstrates that the data distribution for most variables is far from normal. The kurtosis for the post-survey language proficiency level of the test group is 6.86, indicating a peak distribution with thick tails. Furthermore, the standard deviation for the reference group's pre-survey digital skills is 2.32, which is a relatively high level. All of these numbers indicate that statistical test results might be unreliable.

Table 5 Descriptive Statistics for the Variables
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The independent sample t-test findings show that there is no statistically significant difference in language proficiency levels between students in the test and reference groups. The p-value is 0.106 (see Table 6), which is significantly higher than the 0.05 significance level. The p-value for the one-two tail p-value is likewise greater than 0.05. The situation remained the same when the test group was exposed to the game-based learning strategy. While the test group's mean proficiency level improved, the p-value is 0.949 (see Table 7), implying that there was no statistically significant impact on the population of interest.

Table 6 Results of the independent sample t-Test for the pre-test language proficiency levels of test and reference groups
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Table 7 Results of the Independent Sample t-Test for the Post-Test Language Proficiency Levels of Test and Reference Groups
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The study's findings show that there is no statistically significant difference in the means of the two groups' digital skills before and after the intervention. In other words, there is no evidence to claim that the test group's exposure to the mobile app impacted its members' digital skills in any manner as compared to the reference group (see Tables 8 and 9).

Table 8 Results of the Independent Sample t-Test for the Pre-Test Digital Skills of the Reference and Test Groups
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Table 9 Results of the Independent Sample t-Test for the Post-Test Digital Skills of the Reference and Test Groups
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Discussion

At the beginning of the language course, both groups, the test group and the reference group, showed the same level of cultural understanding. This result shows that language learning directly affects learning and becomes well versed with the culture of the language (Moradi & Rahmani, 2017). Learning Maltese contributed to a deeper understanding of the culture across cuisine, sports, literature, history and geography. However after using the app, the test group showed a more significant improvement in cultural awareness and development of informational interests in comparison to the reference group. This result aligns with Breien and Wasson’s (2021) assertion that game-based learning boosts engagement since learners are motivated by the interfaces and design of the games based on likes, preferences and informational interests. The mobile-based application created a deeper understanding of cultural differences and gave more insight regarding the local Maltese speakers. Understanding a language from a cultural context goes hand in hand with language proficiency. In fact, learning a language is linked to culture from a linguistic perspective and in an interactive manner (Moradi & Rahmani, 2017).

Contrary to the researcher’s expectations, the game-based application did not improve the language proficiency of the test group. The test group participants’ opinion did not show a greater level of language proficiency at the end of the language course. The results contradict the findings of Idris et al. (2020) and Xu et al. (2019), who stipulated that game-based learning platforms assist in the direct mastery of L2 and instil language skills. Consequently, the test group participants could not apply language skills learned in their day-to-day lives more effectively than the reference group participants. However, the test group was more able than the reference group to learn about the university’s history, find their way around the university, name more famous people and navigate their way within Malta after taking the Maltese language course that was coupled with game-based learning. Overall, the research findings show that, while game-based learning may be useful in facilitating students' cultural learning, it is unsuccessful in improving their language proficiency and improving their digital skills.

It seems reasonable to assume that the findings of the statistical tests could be mainly explained by the small sample size. Since the test and reference groups have a limited number of participants, and there is a difference in the number of participants in the pre- and post-tests for both groups, it is difficult to conduct statistical analyses to compare their results before and after exposure to mobile game-based learning or an alternative intervention. Furthermore, the surveys captured the participants' perceptions of their Maltese language proficiency and digital skills, and no tests were administered to verify their perceptions. The presence of abnormal kurtosis and standard deviations for the variables illustrates that the statistical tests might be unreliable. As a result, further research is required to conduct a more reliable assessment of the usefulness of mobile game-based apps in helping adult students' acquisition of foreign languages such as Maltese.

Limitations

  1. i.

    The post-survey group of participants was less than the pre-survey participants, especially for the test group, who were significantly fewer, skewing elements of data collection and analysis.

  2. ii.

    The anonymity of the surveys provided a reductive perception of who the participants truly were, which could have aided in assessing personal characteristics that would have added more tangible information to the study.

  3. iii.

    Some of the test group participants did not have smartphones to effectively use the application, and others had smartphones that were incompatible with the application.

  4. iv.

    One of the applications provided by the programmers only revealed one slide, yielding no benefit to the study.

  5. v.

    Language tests were not administered to validate the participants’ opinions concerning their Maltese language proficiency, cultural awareness, communication skills with locals and digital skills.

Recommendations

  1. i.

    Future projects for mobile game-based learning applications should include more devices other than smartphones.

  2. ii.

    Game- and mobile-based learning should be integrated within the traditional classroom setting.

  3. iii.

    Universities that host international students should endeavour to utilise digital tools to enhance the L2 learning process and improve important aspects such as L2 vocabulary, grammar and culture as an added bonus.

Conclusion

The advent of the digital age calls for the use of game and mobile-based applications to improve both teaching and learning. According to research, digital learning tools complement and enhance SLA. For this study, two groups, a test group and a reference group of international students learning Maltese were selected to participate. The test group comprised students who were learning Maltese and used the digital application, while the reference group took the Maltese language course without using the mobile game-based learning tool. The results showed that the test group participants who used the app stated that it improved their cultural awareness and their communication with the locals. Concurrently, the study did not validate the effectiveness of mobile game-based learning to improve students' pespective concerning their language proficiency and digital skills. At the end of the language course, the reference group agreed, to a significant degree, that digital tools are necessary for improving both L2 teaching and learning. Conversely, further study is needed to understand how professionals may establish an environment in which game-based applications are effective in improving adult learners' Maltese language proficiency and digital skills.