Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

Novel Therapies Targeting Endometriosis

  • Review
  • Published:
Reproductive Sciences Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Endometriosis is an often painful disorder in which the endometrial glands and stroma grow outside the uterus. The disease affects women’s quality of life and is a common cause of infertility. In this review, we describe promising new developments in the field based on in vitro assays and rodent models, each of which has the potential to be beneficial in the treatment of this disease. We will specifically describe the role of anti-inflammatory drugs, selective estrogen, or progesterone modulators, statins, antiangiogenic agents, and the potential for targeting stem cells as likely methods to hone in and eliminate endometriosis. The most promising of these potential therapies are currently slated for further testing in both rodent and nonhuman primate trials.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Giudice LC, Kao LC. Endometriosis. Lancet. 2004;364(9447): 1789–1799.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Taylor RN, Lebovic DI, Mueller MD. Angiogenic factors in endometriosis. Ann NY Acad Sci. 2002;955: 89–100; discussion 118, 396–406.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Krikun G, Lockwood CJ, Paidas MJ. Tissue factor and the endometrium: from physiology to pathology. Thromb Res. 2009; 124(4):393–396.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Sharpe-Timms KL, Young SL. Understanding endometriosis is the key to successful therapeutic management. Fertil Steril. 2004;81(5):1201–1203.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Rogers PA, D’Hooghe TM, Fazleabas A, et al. Priorities for endometriosis research: recommendations from an international consensus workshop. Reprod Sci. 2009;16(4):335–346.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Schindler AE. Pathophysiology, diagnosis and treatment of endometriosis. Minerva Ginecol. 2004;56(5):419–435.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Taylor RN, Lundeen SG, Giudice LC. Emerging role of genomics in endometriosis research. Fertil Steril. 2002;78(4):694–698.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Wenzl R, Kiesel L, Huber JC, Wieser F. Endometriosis: a genetic disease. Drugs Today (Barc). 2003;39(12):961–972.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Kyama CM, Debrock S, Mwenda JM, D’Hooghe TM. Potential involvement of the immune system in the development of endometriosis. Reprod Biol Endocrinol. 2003;1:123.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  10. Chegini N. Peritoneal molecular environment, adhesion formation and clinical implication. Front Biosci. 2002;7:e91-e115.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Gazvani R, Templeton A. Peritoneal environment, cytokines and angiogenesis in the pathophysiology of endometriosis. Reproduction. 2002;123(2):217–226.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Lin YJ, Lai MD, Lei HY, Wing LY. Neutrophils and macrophages promote angiogenesis in the early stage of endometriosis in a mouse model. Endocrinology. 2006;147(3):1278–1286.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Barcz E, Rozewska ES, Kaminski P, Demkow U, Bobrowska K, Marianowski L. Angiogenic activity and IL-8 concentrations in peritoneal fluid and sera in endometriosis. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2002;79(3):229–235.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Drenkhahn M, Gescher DM, Wolber EM, Meyhoefer-Malik A, Malik E. Expression of angiopoietin 1 and 2 in ectopic endometrium on the chicken chorioallantoic membrane. Fertil Steril. 2004;81(suppl 1):869–875.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Ferrero S, Ragni N, Remorgida V. Antiangiogenic therapies in endometriosis. Br J Pharmacol. 2006;149(2):133–135.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  16. Osteen KG, Yeaman GR, Bruner-Tran KL. Matrix metalloproteinases and endometriosis. Semin Reprod Med. 2003;21(2): 155–164.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Osteen KG, Bruner-Tran KL, Ong D, Eisenberg E. Paracrine mediators of endometrial matrix metalloproteinase expression: potential targets for progestin-based treatment of endometriosis. Ann NY Acad Sci. 2002;955: 139–146; discussion 157–138, 396–406.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Fazleabas AT, Brudney A, Gurates B, Chai D, Bulun S. A modified baboon model for endometriosis. Ann NY Acad Sci. 2002;955:308–317; discussion 340–302, 396–406.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Augoulea A, Lambrinoudaki I, Christodoulakos G. Thoracic endometriosis syndrome. Respiration. 2008;75(1):113–119.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Ludwig M, Bauer O, Wiedemann GJ, Diedrich K. Ureteric and pulmonary endometriosis. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2001;265(3): 158–161.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Sasson IE, Taylor HS. Stem cells and the pathogenesis of endometriosis. Ann NY Acad Sci. 2008;1127:106–115.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Bulun SE, Cheng YH, Pavone ME, et al. Estrogen receptor-beta, estrogen receptor-alpha, and progesterone resistance in endometriosis. Semin Reprod Med. 2010;28(1):36–43.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  23. Simsa P, Mihalyi A, Kyama CM, Mwenda JM, Fulop V, D’Hooghe TM. Selective estrogen-receptor modulators and aromatase inhibitors: promising new medical therapies for endometriosis? Womens Health (Lond Engl). 2007;3(5):617–628.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Bruner KL, Matrisian LM, Rodgers WH, Gorstein F, Osteen KG. Suppression of matrix metalloproteinases inhibits establishment of ectopic lesions by human endometrium in nude mice. J Clin Invest. 1997;99(12):2851–2857.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  25. Krikun G, Hu Z, Osteen K, et al. The immunoconjugate “icon” targets aberrantly expressed endothelial tissue factor causing regression of endometriosis. Am J Pathol. 2010;176(2):1050–1056.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Zamah NM, Dodson MG, Stephens LC, Buttram VC Jr, Besch PK, Kaufman RH. Transplantation of normal and ectopic human endometrial tissue into athymic nude mice. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1984;149(6):591–597.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Bergqvist A, Jeppsson S, Kullander S, Ljungberg O. Human uterine endometrium and endometriotic tissue transplanted into nude mice. Morphologic effects of various steroid hormones. Am J Pathol. 1985;121(2):337–341.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Nisolle M, Casanas-Roux F, Donnez J. Early-stage endometriosis: adhesion and growth of human menstrual endometrium in nude mice. Fertil Steril. 2000;74(2):306–312.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Bruner-Tran KL, Zhang Z, Eisenberg E, Winneker RC, Osteen KG. Down-regulation of endometrial matrix metalloproteinase-3 and -7 expression in vitro and therapeutic regression of experimental endometriosis in vivo by a novel nonsteroidal progesterone receptor agonist, tanaproget. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91(4):1554–1560.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Bruner-Tran KL, Eisenberg E, Yeaman GR, Anderson TA, McBean J, Osteen KG. Steroid and cytokine regulation of matrix metalloproteinase expression in endometriosis and the establishment of experimental endometriosis in nude mice. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002;87(10):4782–4791.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Olive DL. Role of progesterone antagonists and new selective progesterone receptor modulators in reproductive health. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 2002;57(11 suppl 4):S55–S63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Hemmings R, Rivard M, Olive DL, et al. Evaluation of risk factors associated with endometriosis. Fertil Steril. 2004;81(6): 1513–1521.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Bruner-Tran KL, ME M, Osteen KG. Chimeric Models of Experimental Endometriosis (in press) Giudice, LC (editor). 2010.

  34. Hammond MG, Oh ST, Anners J, Surrey ES, Halme J. The effect of growth factors on the proliferation of human endometrial stromal cells in culture. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1993;168(4): 1131–1136; discussion 1136–1138.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Harris HA, Bruner-Tran KL, Zhang X, Osteen KG, Lyttle CR. A selective estrogen receptor-beta agonist causes lesion regression in an experimentally induced model of endometriosis. Hum Reprod. 2005;20(4):936–941.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Peng J, Sengupta S, Jordan VC. Potential of selective estrogen receptor modulators as treatments and preventives of breast cancer. Anticancer Agents Med Chem. 2009;9(5): 481–499.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  37. Stygar D, Muravitskaya N, Eriksson B, Eriksson H, Sahlin L. Effects of SERM (selective estrogen receptor modulator) treatment on growth and proliferation in the rat uterus. Reprod Biol Endocrinol. 2003;1:40.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  38. Stratton P, Sinaii N, Segars J, et al. Return of chronic pelvic pain from endometriosis after raloxifene treatment: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol. 2008;111(1):88–96.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  39. Pickar JH, Yeh IT, Bachmann G, Speroff L. Endometrial effects of a tissue selective estrogen complex containing bazedoxifene/ conjugated estrogens as a menopausal therapy. Fertil Steril. 2009;92(3):1018–1024.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Peano BJ, Crabtree JS, Komm BS, Winneker RC, Harris HA. Effects of various selective estrogen receptor modulators with or without conjugated estrogens on mouse mammary gland. Endocrinology. 2009;150(4):1897–1903.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Vercellini P, De Giorgi O, Oldani S, Cortesi I, Panazza S, Crosignani PG. Depot medroxyprogesterone acetate versus an oral contraceptive combined with very-low-dose danazol for long-term treatment of pelvic pain associated with endometriosis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1996;175(2):396–401.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Yap C, Furness S, Farquhar C. Pre and post operative medical therapy for endometriosis surgery. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004;3:CD003678.

  43. Hull ML, Charnock-Jones DS, Chan CL, et al. Antiangiogenic agents are effective inhibitors of endometriosis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88(6):2889–2899.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Torry DS, Torry RJ. Angiogenesis and the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor in endometrium and placenta. Am J Reprod Immunol. 1997;37(1):21–29.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Gargett CE, Rogers PA. Human endometrial angiogenesis. Reproduction. 2001;121(2):181–186.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Smith SK. Angiogenesis, vascular endothelial growth factor and the endometrium. Hum Reprod Update. 1998;4(5):509–519.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Smith SK. Regulation of angiogenesis in the endometrium. Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2001;12(4):147–151.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Ferrara N, Frantz G, LeCouter J, et al. Differential expression of the angiogenic factor genes vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and endocrine gland-derived VEGF in normal and polycystic human ovaries. Am J Pathol. 2003;162(6):1881–1893.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  49. Ferrara N, Alitalo K. Clinical applications of angiogenic growth factors and their inhibitors. Nat Med. 1999;5(12):1359–1364.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Laschke MW, Elitzsch A, Vollmar B, Vajkoczy P, Menger MD. Combined inhibition of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), fibroblast growth factor and platelet-derived growth factor, but not inhibition of VEGF alone, effectively suppresses angiogenesis and vessel maturation in endometriotic lesions. Hum Reprod. 2006;21(1):262–268.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Gescher DM, Haensel A, Meyhofer-Malik A, Malik E. [The importance of angiogenesis for the pathogenesis of endometriosis]. Zentralbl Gynakol. 2003;125(7–8):243–246.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Oosterlynck DJ, Meuleman C, Sobis H, Vandeputte M, Koninckx PR. Angiogenic activity of peritoneal fluid from women with endometriosis. Fertil Steril. 1993;59(4):778–782.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Sokolov DI, Solodovnikova NG, Pavlov OV, Niauri DA, Volkov NN, Sel’kov SA. Study of cytokine profile and angiogenic potential of peritoneal fluid in patients with external genital endometriosis. Bull Exp Biol Med. 2005;140(5):541–544.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Nemerson Y. Tissue factor and hemostasis. Blood. 1988;71(1): 1–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Belting M, Dorrell MI, Sandgren S, et al. Regulation of angiogenesis by tissue factor cytoplasmic domain signaling. Nat Med. 2004;10(5):502–509.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Versteeg HH, Peppelenbosch MP, Spek CA. Tissue factor signal transduction in angiogenesis. Carcinogenesis. 2003;24(6): 1009–1013.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Versteeg HH, Ruf W. Emerging insights in tissue factor-dependent signaling events. Semin Thromb Hemost. 2006;32(1): 24–32.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Wolberg AS, Monroe DM, Roberts HR, Hoffman MR. Tissue factor de-encryption: ionophore treatment induces changes in tissue factor activity by phosphatidylserine-dependent and -independent mechanisms. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. 1999; 10(4):201–210.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Versteeg HH, Ruf W. Tissue factor coagulant function is enhanced by protein-disulfide isomerase independent of oxidoreductase activity. J Biol Chem. 2007;282(35):25416–25424.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Carmeliet P, Mackman N, Moons L, et al. Role of tissue factor in embryonic blood vessel development. Nature. 1996;383(6595): 73–75.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Toomey JR, Kratzer KE, Lasky NM, Stanton JJ, Broze GJ Jr. Targeted disruption of the murine tissue factor gene results in embryonic lethality. Blood. 1996;88(5):1583–1587.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Bugge TH, Xiao Q, Kombrinck KW, et al. Fatal embryonic bleeding events in mice lacking tissue factor, the cell-associated initiator of blood coagulation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1996;93(13): 6258–6263.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  63. Hu Z, Sun Y, Garen A. Targeting tumor vasculature endothelial cells and tumor cells for immunotherapy of human melanoma in a mouse xenograft model. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1999; 96(14):8161–8166.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  64. Hu Z, Garen A. Intratumoral injection of adenoviral vectors encoding tumor-targeted immunoconjugates for cancer immunotherapy. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2000;97(16): 9221–9225.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  65. Hu Z, Garen A. Targeting tissue factor on tumor vascular endothelial cells and tumor cells for immunotherapy in mouse models of prostatic cancer. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2001; 98(21):12180–12185.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  66. Du H, Taylor HS. Stem cells and female reproduction. Reprod Sci. 2009;16(2):126–139.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Kim JY, Tavare S, Shibata D. Counting human somatic cell replications: methylation mirrors endometrial stem cell divisions. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2005;102(49): 17739–17744.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  68. Braundmeier AG, Fazleabas AT. The non-human primate model of endometriosis: research and implications for fecundity. Mol Hum Reprod. 2009;15(10):577–586.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  69. Kannan A, Fazleabas AT, Bagchi IC, Bagchi MK. The transcription factor C/EBPbeta is a marker of uterine receptivity and expressed at the implantation site in the primate. Reprod Sci. 2010;17(5):434–443.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. D’Hooghe TM, Kyama CM, Chai D, et al. Nonhuman primate models for translational research in endometriosis. Reprod Sci. 2009;16(2):152–161.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Du H, Taylor HS. Contribution of bone marrow-derived stem cells to endometrium and endometriosis. Stem Cells. 2007; 25(8):2082–2086.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Taylor HS. Endometrial cells derived from donor stem cells in bone marrow transplant recipients. JAMA. 2004;292(1):81–85.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Du H, Taylor HS. Stem cells and reproduction. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol. 2010;22(3):235–241.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  74. Zhou Y, Gan Y, Taylor HS. Cigarette smoke inhibits recruitment of bone-marrow-derived stem cells to the uterus. Reprod Toxicol. 2011;31(2):123–127.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Taylor HS, Fei X. Emx2 regulates mammalian reproduction by altering endometrial cell proliferation. Mol Endocrinol. 2005;19(11):2839–2846.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Goldstein JL, Brown MS. Regulation of the mevalonate pathway. Nature. 1990;343(6257):425–430.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Zhang FL, Casey PJ. Protein prenylation: molecular mechanisms and functional consequences. Annu Rev Biochem. 1996;65: 241–269.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Franzoni F, Quinones-Galvan A, Regoli F, Ferrannini E, Galetta F. A comparative study of the in vitro antioxidant activity of statins. Int J Cardiol. 2003;90(2–3):317–321.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Santanam N, Murphy AA, Parthasarathy S. Macrophages, oxidation, and endometriosis. Ann NY Acad Sci. 2002;955:183–198; discussion 119–200, 396–406.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  80. Pellegrin S, Mellor H. Actin stress fibres. J Cell Sci. 2007;120(pt 20):3491–3499.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Nobes CD, Hall A. Rho, rac, and cdc42 GTPases regulate the assembly of multimolecular focal complexes associated with actin stress fibers, lamellipodia, and filopodia. Cell. 1995;81(1):53–62.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Dobreanu M, Dobreanu D, Fodor A, Bacarea A. Integrin expression on monocytes and lymphocytes in unstable angina short term effects of atorvastatin. Rom J Intern Med. 2007; 45(2):193–199.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Xu H, Zeng L, Peng H, et al. HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor simvastatin mitigates VEGF-induced “inside-out” signaling to extracellular matrix by preventing RhoA activation. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2006;291(5):F995–F1004.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Nasu K, Yuge A, Tsuno A, Narahara H. Simvastatin inhibits the proliferation and the contractility of human endometriotic stromal cells: a promising agent for the treatment of endometriosis. Fertil Steril. 2009;92(6):2097–2099.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Sokalska A, Wong DH, Cress A, et al. Simvastatin induces apoptosis and alters cytoskeleton in endometrial stromal cells. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010;95(7):3453–3459.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  86. Kyama CM, Overbergh L, Debrock S, et al. Increased peritoneal and endometrial gene expression of biologically relevant cytokines and growth factors during the menstrual phase in women with endometriosis. Fertil Steril. 2006;85(6):1667–1675.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Chung HW, Lee JY, Moon HS, et al. Matrix metalloproteinase-2, membranous type 1 matrix metalloproteinase, and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-2 expression in ectopic and eutopic endometrium. Fertil Steril. 2002;78(4):787–795.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Sluijter JP, de Kleijn DP, Pasterkamp G. Vascular remodeling and protease inhibition—bench to bedside. Cardiovasc Res. 2006; 69(3):595–603.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Schweitzer M, Mitmaker B, Obrand D, et al. Atorvastatin modulates matrix metalloproteinase expression, activity, and signaling in abdominal aortic aneurysms. Vasc Endovascular Surg. 2010;44(2):116–122.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Porter KE, Turner NA. Statins for the prevention of vein graft stenosis: a role for inhibition of matrix metalloproteinase-9. Biochem Soc Trans. 2002;30(2):120–126.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Bruner-Tran KL, Osteen KG, Duleba AJ. Simvastatin protects against the development of endometriosis in a nude mouse model. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009;94(7):2489–2494.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Foyouzi N, Berkkanoglu M, Arici A, Kwintkiewicz J, Izquierdo D, Duleba AJ. Effects of oxidants and antioxidants on proliferation of endometrial stromal cells. Fertil Steril. 2004;82(suppl 3):1019–1022.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Piotrowski PC, Kwintkiewicz J, Rzepczynska IJ, et al. Statins inhibit growth of human endometrial stromal cells independently of cholesterol availability. Biol Reprod. 2006;75:107–111.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Esfandiari N, Khazaei M, Ai J, et al. Effect of a statin on an in vitro model of endometriosis. Fertil Steril. 2007;87(2): 257–262.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Sharma I, Dhawan V, Mahajan N, Chand Saha S, Dhaliwal LK. In vitro effects of atorvastatin on lipopolysaccharide-induced gene expression in endometriotic stromal cells. Fertil Steril. 2010 94(5):1639–46.e1.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Wassmann S, Laufs U, Muller K, et al. Cellular antioxidant effects of atorvastatin in vitro and in vivo. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2002;22(2):300–305.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Weber MS, Stuve O, Neuhaus O, Hartung HP, Zamvil SS. Spotlight on statins. Int MS J. 2007;14(3):93–97.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Greenwood J, Steinman L, Zamvil SS. Statin therapy and autoimmune disease: from protein prenylation to immunomodulation. Nat Rev Immunol. 2006;6(5):358–370.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Aljada A, O’Connor L, Fu YY, Mousa SA. PPAR gamma ligands, rosiglitazone and pioglitazone, inhibit bFGF- and VEGF-mediated angiogenesis. Angiogenesis. 2008;11(4): 361–367.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Imamoto E, Yoshida N, Uchiyama K, et al. Inhibitory effect of pioglitazone on expression of adhesion molecules on neutrophils and endothelial cells. Biofactors. 2004;20(1):37–47.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Herington JL, Crispens MA, Carvalho-Macedo AC, et al. Development and prevention of postsurgical adhesions in a chimeric mouse model of experimental endometriosis. Fertil Steril. 2011;95(4):1295–1301.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Mathur SP. Autoimmunity in endometriosis: relevance to infertility. Am J Reprod Immunol. 2000;44(2):89–95.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Hugh S. Taylor MD.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Taylor, H.S., Osteen, K.G., Bruner-Tran, K.L. et al. Novel Therapies Targeting Endometriosis. Reprod. Sci. 18, 814–823 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1177/1933719111410713

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1933719111410713

Keywords

Navigation