Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Trauma in Children and Adolescents: Issues Related to Age and Complex Traumatic Reactions

  • Introduction
  • Published:
Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Accurate assessment is important to treatment selection, and following traumas is particularly important for children. Traumas may undermine a child’s developmental progression as well as emotional health and functioning. A number of developmental issues influence the nature and accurate assessment of traumatic reactions in children and adolescents. Youth reactions and reporting differ from those of adults, which suggest the need for diagnostic criteria and assessment measures specifically designed for varying developmental age groups. This introductory article discusses trauma-related developmental issues and the structure and nature of posttraumatic stress disorder now debated for adults and children. Also addressed are children’s complicated trauma-related disorders, which are still being tested and for which measures are newly developed or undergoing revision.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abdelnoor, A., & Hollins, S. (2004). The effect of childhood bereavement on secondary school performance. Educational Psychology in Practice, 20(1), 43–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aber, J., Brown, J., & Jones, S. (2003). Developmental trajectories toward violence in middle childhood: Course, demographic differences, and response to school-based intervention. Developmental Psychology, 39, 324–348.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Achenbach, T., & Rescorla, L. (2001). Manual for the ASEBA school-age forms & profiles. Burlington: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, & Families.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ainsworth, M., Blehar, M., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Amaya-Jackson, L., McCarthy, G., Newman, E., & Cherney, M. (1995). Child PTSD Checklist. Durham, NC: Duke University Medical Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anda, R., Felitti, V., Bremner, J., Walker, J., Whitfield, C., Perry, B. D., et al. (2006). The enduring effects of abuse and related adverse experiences in childhood: A convergence of evidence from neurobiology and epidemiology. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 256, 174–186.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Angold, A., Cox, A., Prendergast, M., Rutter, M., & Simonoff, E. (2008). Child and adolescent psychiatric assessment. Unpublished manuscript, Center for Developmental Epidemiology, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Angold, A., & Egger, H. (2007). Preschool psychopathology: Lessons for the lifespan. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 961–966.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anthony, J., Lonigan, C., Vernberg, E., La Greca, A., Silverman, W., & Prinstein, M. (2005). Multisample crossvalidation of a model of childhood posttraumatic stress disorder symptomatology. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18, 667–676.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Armour, C., Layne, C., Naifeh, J., Shevlin, M., Durakovic-Belko, E., Djapo, N., et al. (2011). Assessing the factor structure of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in war-exposed youths with and without Criterion A2 endorsement. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 25, 80–87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. (2001). The executive functions and self-regulation: An evolutionary neuropsychological perspective. Neuropsychology Review, 11(1), 1–29.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Becker-Weidman, A. (2009). Effects of early maltreatment on development: A descriptive study using the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales-II. Child Welfare, 88, 137–161.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blakemore, S., & Choudhury, S. (2006). Development of the adolescent brain: Implications for executive function and social cognition. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 296–312.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boelen, P., van den Hout, M., & van den Bout, J. (2006). A cognitive-behavioral conceptualization of complicated grief. Clinical Psychology Science and Practice, 13, 109–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boelen, P., van de Schoot, R., van den Hout, M., de Keijser, J., & van den Bout, J. (2010). Prolonged grief disorder, depression, and posttraumatic stress disorder are distinguishable syndromes. Journal of Affective Disorders, 125, 374–378.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bornovalova, M., Levy, R., Gratz, K., & Lejuez, C. (2010). Understanding the heterogeneity of BPD symptoms through latent class analysis: Initial results and clinical correlates among inner-city substance users. Psychological Assessment, 22, 233–245.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Breslau, N., & Kessler, R. (2001). The stressor criterion in DSM-IV posttraumatic stress disorder: An empirical investigation. Biological Psychiatry, 50, 699–704.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Breslau, C., Lanius, R., Novac, A., Schnyder, U., & Galea, S. (2009). Reformulating PTSD for DSM-V: Life after Criterion A. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 22, 366–373.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brewin, C. R., Andrews, B., & Rose, S. (2000). Fear, helplessness, and horror in posttraumatic stress disorder: Investigating DSM-IV Criterion A2 in victims of violent crime. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13, 499–509.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Briere, J. (2005). Trauma Symptom Checklist for Young Children (TSCYC). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

    Google Scholar 

  • Broman-Fulks, J., Ruggiero, K., Green, B., Smith, D., Hanson, R., Kilpatrick, D., et al. (2009). The latent structure of PTSD among adolescents. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 22, 146–152.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carrion, V., Weems, C., Ray, R., & Reiss, A. (2002). Toward an empirical definition of pediatric PTSD: The phenomenology of PTSD symptoms in youth. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 166–173.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carrion, V., Weems, C., Richert, K., Hoffman, B., & Reiss, A. (2010). Decreased prefrontal cortical volume associated with increased bedtime cortisol in traumatized youth. Biological Psychiatry, 68, 491–493.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cisler, J., Amstadter, A., & Nugent, N. (in press). Genetic and environmental influences on posttrauma adjustment in children and adolescents: The role of personality constructs. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma.

  • Corruble, E., Chouinard, V., Letierce, A., Gorwood, P., & Chouinard, G. (2009). Is DSM-IV bereavement exclusion for major depressive episode relevant to severity and pattern of symptoms? A case-control, cross-sectional study. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 70, 1091–1097.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Costello, E., Foley, D., & Angold, A. (2006). 10-year research update review: The epidemiology of child and adolescent psychiatric disorders: II. Developmental epidemiology. Journal of the American Academy of child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 8–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Daviss, W., Mooney, D., Racusin, R., Ford, J., Fleischer, A., & McHugo, G. (2000). Predicting posttraumatic stress after hospitalization for pediatric injury. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 59, 576–583.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Bellis, M. (2002). Developmental traumatology: A contributory mechanism for alcohol and substance use disorders. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 27, 155–170.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DeYoung, C., Hirsh, J., Shane, M., Papademetris, X., Rajeevan, N., & Gray, J. (2010). Testing predictions from personality neuroscience: Brain structure and the big five. Psychological Science, 21, 820–828.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dillen, L., Fontaine, J., & Verhofstadt-Denève, L. (2008). Are normal and complicated grief different constructs? A confirmatory factor analytic test. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 15, 386–395.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dillen, L., Fontaine, J., & Verhofstadt-Denève, L. (2009). Confirming the distinctiveness of complicated grief from depression and anxiety among adolescents. Death Studies, 33, 437–461.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Egger, H., & Angold, A. (2006). Common emotional and behavioral disorders in preschool children: Presentation, nosology, and epidemiology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 313–337.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elhai, J., Engdahl, R., Palmieri, P., Naifeh, J., Schweinle, A., & Jacobs, G. (2009). Assessing post-traumatic stress disorder with or without reference to a single, worst traumatic event: Examining differences in factor structure. Psychological Assessment, 21, 629–634.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Emde, R., & Spicer, P. (2000). Experience in the midst of variation: New horizons for development and psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 313–331.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Finkelhor, D., Ormrod, R., & Turner, H. (2007). Poly-victimization: A neglected component in child victimization. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31, 7–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Finkelhor, D., Ormrod, R., & Turner, H. (2009). Lifetime assessment of poly-victimization in a national sample of children & youth. Child Abuse & Neglect, 33, 403–411.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fletcher, K. (2010). Dimensions of Stressful Events (DOSE-R3). Unpublished measure, Boston, MA.

  • Fletcher, K. (in press). Assuming responsibility: Understanding and assessing traumatic responses of guilt, shame, and anger among children, adolescents, and adults. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma.

  • Ford, J. (2005). Treatment implications of altered neurobiology, affect regulation and information processing following child maltreatment. Psychiatric Annals, 35, 410–419.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ford, J. (2009). Neurobiological and developmental research: Developmental implications. In C. Courtois & J. Ford (Eds.), Treating complex traumatic stress disorders: An evidence-based guide (pp. 31–58). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ford, J., & Courtois, C. (2009). Defining and understanding complex trauma. In C. Courtois & J. Ford (Eds.), Treating complex traumatic stress disorders: An evidence-based guide (pp. 13–30). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ford, J., Elhai, J., Ruggiero, K., & Frueh, B. (2009). Refining posttraumatic stress disorder diagnosis: Evaluation of symptom criteria with the National Survey of Adolescents. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 70, 748–755.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ford, J., Ghosh Ippen, C., Wolpaw, J., Racusin, R., Rogers, K., Ellis, C, et al. (2005). Traumatic Events Screening Inventory for Children (TESI-C). Dartmouth, VT: National Center for PTSD and Dartmouth Child Psychiatry Research Group.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frewen, P., Dozois, D., Neufeld, R., & Lanius, R. (2008). Meta-analysis of alexithymia in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 21, 243–246.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Geiger, T., & Crick, N. (2001). A developmental psychopathology perspective on vulnerability to personality disorders. In R. E. Ingram & J. M. Price (Eds.), Vulnerability to psychopathology: Risk across the lifespan (pp. 57–102). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Golden, A., Dalgleish, T., & Mackintosh, B. (2007). Levels of specificity of autobiographical memories and of biographical memories of the deceased in bereaved individuals with and without complicated grief. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 786–795.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Granot, D., & Mayseless, O. (2001). Attachment security and adjustment to school in middle childhood. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 25, 530–541.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grynberg, D., Luminet, O., Corneille, O., Grèzes, J., & Berthoz, S. (2010). Alexithymia in the inter-personal domain: A general deficit of empathy? Personality and Individual Differences, 49, 845–850.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herman, J. (1992/1997). Complex PTSD: A syndrome in survivors of prolonged and repeated trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 5, 377–391.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holland, J., Neimeyer, R., Boelen, P., & Prigerson, H. (2009). The underlying structure of grief: A taxometric investigation of prolonged and normal reactions to loss. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 31, 190–201.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • House, A. E. (2002). The first session with children and adolescents: Conducting a comprehensive mental health evaluation. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Iacono, W., & McGue, M. (2006). Association between P3 event-related brain potential amplitude and adolescent problem behavior. Psychophysiology, 43, 465–469.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ialongo, N., Edelsohn, G., & Kellam, S. (2001). A further look at the prognostic power of young children’s reports of depressed mood and feelings. Child Development, 72, 736–747.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ialongo, N., Edelsohn, G., Werthamer-Larsson, L., & Kellam, S. (1995). The significance of first graders’ self-reports of anxious symptoms: Prediction to adaptive functioning and anxious symptoms in fifth grade. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 36, 427–437.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kassam-Adams, N., Marsac, M., & Cirilli, C. (2010). Posttraumatic stress disorder symptom structure in injured children: Functional impairment and depression symptoms in a confirmatory factor analysis. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 49, 616–625.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaysen, D., Rosen, G., Bowman, M., & Resick, P. (2010). Duration of exposure and the dose-response model of PTSD. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25(1), 63–74.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kerns, K., Abraham, M., Schlegelmilch, A., & Morgan, T. (2007). Mother-child attachment in later middle childhood: Assessment approaches and associations with mood and emotion regulation. Attachment & Human Development, 9(1), 33–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kerr, D., Lukenheimer, E., & Olsen, S. (2007). Assessment of child problem behaviors by multiple informants: A longitudinal study from preschool to school entry. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 967–975.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kilpatrick, D., Resnick, H., & Acierno, R. (2009). Should PTSD Criterion A be retained? Journal of Traumatic Stress, 22, 374–383.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • King, D., Leskin, G., King, L., & Weathers, F. (1998). Confirmatory factor analysis of the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale: Evidence for the dimensionality of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Assessment, 10, 90–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kira, I. (2010). Etiology and treatment of post-cumulative traumatic stress disorders in different cultures. Traumatology, 16, 128–141.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kochanska, G., Aksan, N., Penney, S., & Doobay, A. (2007). Early positive emotionality as a heterogeneous trait: Implications for children’s self-regulation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 1054–1066.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • La Greca, A., & Prinstein, M. (2002). Hurricanes and earthquakes. In A. La Greca, W. Silverman, E. Vernberg, & M. Roberts (Eds.), Helping children cope with disasters and terrorism (pp. 107–138). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Laird, R. D., Jordan, K. Y., Dodge, K. A., Pettit, G. S., & Bates, J. E. (2001). Peer rejection in childhood, involvement with antisocial peers in early adolescence, and the development of externalizing behavior problems. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 337–354.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lobb, E., Janson, L., Aoun, S., Monterosso, L., Halkett, G., & Davies, A. (2010). Predictors of complicated grief: A systematic review of empirical studies. Death Studies, 34, 673–698.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lobbestael, J., Arntz, A., & Bernstein, D. (2010). Disentangling the relationship between different types of childhood maltreatment and personality disorders. Journal of Personality Disorders, 24, 285–295.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C., Rutter, M., DiLavore, P. C., & Risi, S. (2003). Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS). Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luecken, L. (2008). Long-term consequences of parental death in childhood: Psychological and physiological manifestations. In M. Stroebe, R. Hansson, H. Schut, & W. Stroebe (Eds.), Handbook of bereavement research and practice: Advances in theory and intervention (pp. 397–416). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lupien, S., McEwen, B., Gunnar, M., & Heim, C. (2009). Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition. Neuroscience, 10(1), 1–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • McBurnett, K., King, J., & Scarpa, A. (2003). The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system (HPA) and the development of aggressive, antisocial, and substance abuse disorders. In D. Cicchetti & E. Walker (Eds.), Neurodevelopmental mechanisms in psychopathology (pp. 324–344). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Meiser-Stedman, R., Smith, P., Bryant, R., Salmon, K., Yule, W., Dalgleish, T., et al. (2009). Development and validation of the Child Post-Traumatic Cognitions Inventory (CPTCI). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 432–440.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meiser-Stedman, R., Smith, P., Glucksman, E., Yule, W., & Dalgleish, T. (2008). The posttraumatic stress disorder diagnosis in preschool- and elementary school-age children exposed to motor vehicle accidents. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 1326–1337.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Melhem, N., Day, N., Shear, M. K., Day, R., Reynolds, C., III, & Brent, D. (2004). Traumatic Grief among adolescents exposed to apeer’s suicide. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 1411–1416.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mogford-Bevan, K. (2000). The Play Observation Kit (POKIT): An observational assessment technique for young children. In K. Gitlin-Weiner, A. Sandgrund, & C. Schaefer (Eds.), Play diagnosis and assessment (2nd ed., pp. 262–299). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, E., & Meisgeier, C. (1987). Murphy-Meisgeier Type Indicator for Children. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nader, K. (2008). Understanding and assessing trauma in children and adolescents: Measures, methods, and youth in context. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nader, K. (2010). Children and adolescent’s exposure to the mass violence of war and terrorism: Role of the media. In N. B. Webb (Ed.), Helping bereaved children (3rd ed., pp. 215–239). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nader, K., & Layne, C. (2009). Maladaptive grieving in children and adolescents: Discovering developmentally linked differences in the manifestation of grief. Traumatic Stress Points, 23(5), 12–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nader, K., & Mello, C. (2008). Interactive trauma/grief focused therapy. In N. Coady & P. Lehmann (Eds.), Theoretical perspectives for direct social work practice: A generalist eclectic approach (2nd ed., pp. 493–519). New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nader, K., Newman, E., Weathers, F., Kaloupek, D., Kriegler, J., & Blake, D. (2004). Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale for children and adolescents (CAPS-C). Los Angeles: Western Psychological Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nader, K., Stuber, M., & Fletcher, K. (2005). The Traumatic Play Observation Scale (TPOS). Austin: Two Suns.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nader, K., & Weems, C. (in press). Understanding and assessing cortisol levels in children and adolescents. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma.

  • Naifeh, J., Elhai, J., Kashdan, T., & Grubaugh, A. (2008). The PTSD Symptom Scale’s latent structure: An examination of trauma-exposed medical patients. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22, 1355–1368.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oakland, T., Glutting, J., & Horton, C. (1996). Student Styles Questionnaire: Star qualities in learning, relating, and working. San Antonio: The Psychological Corporation, Harcourt Brace.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Connor, M., Lasgaard, M., Shevlin, M., & Guldin, M. (2010). A confirmatory factor analysis of combined models of the Harvard Trauma Questionnaire and the Inventory of Complicated Grief-Revised: Are we measuring complicated grief or posttraumatic stress? Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 24, 672–679.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olfson, M., Hellman, F., Blanco, C., Guardino, M., & Struening, E. (2001). Comorbidity, impairment, and suicidality in subthreshold PTSD. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 1467–1473.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pearlman, M., Schwartz, K., & Cloitre, M. (2010). The varied manifestations of grief: Assisting a child and caregiver after the loss of a parent. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Posner, M., & Rothbart, M. (2007). Educating the human brain. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Prigerson, H., Horowitz, M., Jacobs, S., Parks, C. M., Aslan, M., Goodkin, K, et al. (2009). Prolonged grief disorder: Psychometric validation of criteria proposed for DSM-V and ICD11. PLoS Medicine, 6(8), e1000121.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prigerson, H., Vanderwerker, L., & Maciejewski, P. (2008). A case for inclusion of prolonged grief disorder in DSM-V. In M. Stroebe, R. Hansson, H. Schut, & W. Strobe (Eds.), Handbook of bereavement research and practice: Advances in theory and intervention (pp. 165–186). Washington, DC: APA Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pynoos, R., & Eth, S. (1986). Witness to violence: The child interview. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 25, 306–319.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pynoos, R., Steinberg, A., Layne, C., Briggs, B., Ostrowski, S., & Fairbank, J. (2009). DSM-V PTSD diagnostic criteria for children and adolescents: A developmental perspective and recommendations. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 22, 391–398.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reich, W., & Todd, R. (2002). Missouri Assessment of Genetics Interview for Children specifications manual. St. Louis, MO: Washington University School of Medicine.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, C., & Kamphaus, R. (1998). Behavior Assessment System for Children manual. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, C., & Richmond, B. (2000). Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale manual. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosen, K. S., & Rothbaum, F. (1993). Quality of parental caregiving and security of attachment. Developmental Psychology, 29, 358–367.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rothbart, M., & Rueda, M. (2005). The development of effortful control. In U. Mayr, E. Awh, & S. W. Keele (Eds.), Developing individuality in the human brain: A festschrift honoring Michael I. Posner (pp. 167–188). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Rubin, D., O’Reilly, A., Luan, X., & Localio, A. (2007). The impact of placement stability on behavioral well-being for children in foster care. Pediatrics, 119, 336–344.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rubin, K. H. (1989). The Play Observation Scale (POS). Waterloo, Ontario, Canada: University of Waterloo.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M. (2003). Commentary: Causal processes leading to antisocial behavior. Developmental Psychology, 39, 372–378.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scaramella, L., Sohr-Preston, S., Callahan, K., & Mirabile, S. (2008). A test of the family stress model on toddler-aged children’s adjustment among Hurricane Katrina impacted and nonimpacted low-income families. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 37, 530–541.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scheeringa, M., Peebles, C., Cook, C., & Zeanah, C. (2001). Toward establishing procedural, criterion, and discriminant validity for PTSD in early childhood. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(1), 52–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scheeringa, M., Wright, M., Hunt, J., & Zeanah, C. (2006). Factors affecting the diagnosis and prediction of PTSD symptomatology in children and adolescents. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 644–651.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Semrud-Clikeman, M., & Glass, K. (2010). The relation of humor and child development: Social, adaptive, and emotional aspects. Journal of Child Neurology, 25, 1248–1260.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shear, K., Jackson, C., Essock, S., Donahue, S., & Felton, C. (2006). Screening for complicated grief among Project Liberty service recipients 18 months after September 11, 2001. Psychiatric Services, 57, 1291–1297.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simms, L., Watson, D., & Doebbeling, B. (2002). Confirmatory factor analyses of posttraumatic stress symptoms in deployed and nondeployed veterans of the Gulf War. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 637–647.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Solomon, J., & George, C. (1999). The measurement of attachment security in infancy and childhood. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 287–316). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spitzer, R., First, M., & Wakefield, J. (2007). Saving PTSD from itself in DSM-V. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 21, 233–241.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stadelmann, S., Perren, S., Von Wyl, A., & Von Klitzing, K. (2007). Associations between family relationships and symptoms/strengths at kindergarten age: What is the role of children’s parental representations? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 996–1004.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stalfa, F. (2010). “Posthumous disillusionment” as a type of complicated grief. The Journal of Pastoral Care and Counseling, 64(2), 71–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steele, H., & Steele, M. (2005). The construct of coherence as an indicator of attachment security in middle childhood: The friends and family interview. In K. Kerns & R. Richardson (Eds.), Attachment in middle childhood (pp. 137–160). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevens, M., Kiehl, K., Pearlson, G., & Calhoun, V. (2007). Functional neural networks underlying response inhibition in adolescents and adults. Behavioural Brain Research, 181, 12–22.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Teicher, M., Samson, J., Polcari, A., & McGreenery, C. (2006). Sticks, stones and hurtful words: Relative effects of various forms of childhood maltreatment. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 993–1000.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tremblay, R.E. (2004). The development of human physical aggression: How important is early childhood? In L. Leavitt & D. Hall (Eds.), Social and moral development: Emerging evidence on the toddler Years (pp. 221–238). Brunswick, NJ: Johnson & Johnson Pediatric Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2001). Age and birth cohort differences in self-esteem: A crosstemporal meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5, 321–344.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Valla, J., Bergeron, L., & Smolla, N. (2000). The Dominic-R: A pictorial interview for 6- to 11-year-old children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 85–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van der Kolk, B. (2005). Developmental trauma disorder: Toward a rational diagnosis for children with complex trauma histories. Psychiatric Annals, 35, 401–408.

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Kolk, B., Roth, S., Pelcovitz, D., Sunday, S., & Spinazzola, J. (2005). Disorders of extreme stress: The empirical foundation of a complex adaptation to trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18, 389–399.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Younge, S., Salazar, L., Sales, J., DiClemente, R., Wingood, G., & Rose, E. (2010). Emotional victimization and sexual risk-taking behaviors among adolescent African American women. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma, 3(2), 79–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zisook, S., Reynolds, C., Pies, R., Simon, N., Lebowitz, B., Madowitz, J., et al. (2010). Bereavement, complicated grief, and DSM, Part 1: Depression. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 71, 955–956.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zisook, S., & Shear, K. (2009). Grief and bereavement: What psychiatrists need to know. World Psychiatry, 9, 67–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zisook, S., Shear, K., & Kendler, K. (2007). Validity of the bereavement exclusion criterion for the diagnosis of major depressive episode. World Psychiatry, 6, 102–107.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zisook, S., Simon, N., Reynolds, C., Pies, R., Lebowitz, B., Tal-Young, I., et al. (2010). Bereavement, complicated grief, and DSM, Part 2: Complicated grief. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 71, 1097–1098.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zurbriggen, E., Gobin, R., & Freyd, J. (2010). Childhood emotional abuse predicts late adolescent sexual aggression perpetration and victimization. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 19, 204–223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Two Suns, 2809 Rathlin Drive, Cedar Park, TX, 78613, USA

    Kathleen Nader

Authors
  1. Kathleen Nader
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kathleen Nader.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Nader, K. Trauma in Children and Adolescents: Issues Related to Age and Complex Traumatic Reactions. Journ Child Adol Trauma 4, 161–180 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1080/19361521.2011.597373

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19361521.2011.597373

Keywords

Search

Navigation