Abstract
The Trudeau government has a deep philosophical attachment to liberal internationalism, yet its actions suggest otherwise. In 2017, its behaviour, operationalised in terms of changes to defence spending, deployments of military personnel overseas and the employment of strategic narratives, lend more weight to ‘reliable ally’ explanations. The Trump Administration, with its criticism of NATO and concern about burden-sharing, represented an intervening variable. Canada’s actions, while certainly self-interested, also represented an effort to persuade the Trump Administration that NATO was neither obsolete nor a club of states free-riding on American largesse as a means of shoring up the alliance.
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Notes
This puzzle was introduced in: J.R. McKay, ‘Deliverology and Canadian Military Commitments in Europe Circa 2017’, Canadian Foreign Policy Journal (2017): 1–17.
Asha Siad, David Carment, Rachel Laborce, and Yany Siek, ‘Report Card: Trudeau Gets a B- on Foreign Policy for Now, but Wait for the Budget’, Ottawa Citizen, March 10, 2017, https://doi.org/ottawacitizen.com/opinion/columnists/report-card-trudeau-gets-a-b-on-foreign-policy-for-now-but-budget-will-be-telling (accessed June 21, 2017).
McKay, ‘Deliverology and Canadian Military Commitments’, 12.
This pledge, made at the Peacekeeping summit in Vancouver, was a quick reaction force, a tactical airlift detachment and an aviation detachment with 600 personnel. See: ‘Canada Bolsters Peacekeeping and Civilian Protection Measures’, November 15, 2017, News Release, https://doi.org/pm.gc.ca/eng/news/releases (accessed November 17, 2017). See also: ‘Pledges’, https://doi.org/www.canada.ca/en/department-national-defence/campaigns/peacekeepin g-defence-ministerial/pledges.html (accessed November 17, 2017).
Justin Massie, ‘Towards Greater Opportunism: Balancing and Bandwagoning in Canada-US Relations’, in Game Changer: The Impact of 9/11 on North American Security, ed. Johnathan Paquin and Patrick James (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2014), 58.
Justin Massie and Stéphane Roussel, ‘The Twilight of Internationalism? Neocontinentalism as an Emerging Dominant Idea in Canadian Foreign Policy’, in Canada in the World: Internationalism in Canadian Foreign Policy, ed. Heather Smith and Claire Turenne Sjolander (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 36, and 45–9.
In Brian Bow, The Politics of Linkage: Power, Interdependence, and Ideas in Canada-U.S. Relations (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2009), continentalism is described both as a desire to take institutional approaches to problems shared by both Canada and the United States and as the Canadian willingness to trade policy autonomy away in exchange for influence and access in Washington, on page 173.
For works in this approach, see: Joel Sokolsky, ‘A Seat at the Table: Canada and Its Alliances’, Armed Forces and Society 16, no. 1 (1989): 11–36
Duane Barry and D. Bratt, ‘Defence Against Help: Explaining Canada-U.S. Security Relations’, American Review of Canadian Studies 38 (2008): 63–89, and
T. Keating and R. Murray, ‘Mutual Constitution or Convenient National Interest? The Security Strategies of Canada and the United States’, 20 (2014): 247–58, and
Stéfanie Von Hlatky, American Allies in Times of War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013).
Alan Bloomfield, ‘Time to Move On: Reconceptualizing the Strategic Culture Debate’, Contemporary Security Policy 33 (2012): 443.
See also: Alan Bloomfield and Kim Richard Nossal, ‘Towards an Explicative Understanding of Strategic Culture: The Cases of Australia and Canada’, Contemporary Security Policy 28 (2007)
For a criticism of the positivist approach to strategic culture, see: Colin Gray, Modern Strategy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 129–51.
Justin Massie, ‘Making Sense of Canada’s “Irrational” International Security Policy’, International Journal (2009): 628–9.
This classification appears in Kenneth Holland, ‘How Unipolarity Impacts Canada’s Engagement with the North Atlantic Treaty Organization’, Canadian Foreign Policy Journal (2012): 55.
Tim Hains, ‘Trump: NATO Is Obsolete and Expensive, “Doesn’t Have the Right Countries in It for Terrorism”’, RealClearPolitics, March 27, 2016, https://doi.org/www.realclearpolitics.com/video/2016/03/27/trump_europe_is_not_safe_lots_of_the_free_world_has_become_weak. html (accessed June 6, 2017)
Ashley Parker, ‘Donald Trump Says NATO is “Obsolete”, UN is “Political Game”’, New York Times, April 2, 2016, https://doi.org/www.nytimes.com/politics/first-draft/2016/04/02/donald-trump-tells-crowd-hed-be-fine-if-nato-broke-up/?_r= 0 (accessed June 6, 2017)
Philip Rucker and Robert Costa, ‘Trump Questions Need for NATO, Outlines Noninterventionist Foreign Policy’, The Washington Post, March 21, 2016, https://doi.org/www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-politics/wp/2016/03/21/donald-trump-reveals-foreign-policy-team-in-meeting-with-the-washington-post/?utm_term=. f77414c2bd28 (accessed June 6, 2017), and
Lydia Tomkiw, ‘Quotes From Donald Trump on NATO: What Republican Candidate Said about North Atlantic Treaty Organization and US Obligations’, International Business Times, July 21, 2016, https://doi.org/www.ibtimes.com/quotes-donald-trump-nato-what-republican-candidate-said-about-north-atlantic-treaty-2393661 (accessed June 6, 2017).
Adam Withnall, ‘Another Trump U-turn? President-elect says US is “strongly committed” to Nato’, The Independent, November 24, 2016, https://doi.org/www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/donald-trump-nato-alliance-strongly-committed-u-turn-jens-stoltenberg-obsolete-a7435966.html (accessed June 6, 2017). A Parliamentary committee that visited Washington reported that some in Washington did not believe that this was a valid threat, but the Trump Administration may choose to limit support to NATO by other means. See: ‘The Canada-U.S. Relationship: Perspectives on Defence, Security, and Trade’, Report of the Standing Committee on National Defence (Ottawa: Parliament of Canada, 2017), 5.
Donald Trump, Michael Gove and Kai Diekmann, ‘Trump Renews His Criticism of NATO: “It’s Obsolete” and “Very Unfair” to the US’, Atlantic Council NATOSource, January 16, 2017, https://doi.org/www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/natosource/trump-repeats-his-view-of-nato-it-s-obsolete (accessed June 6, 2017). See also: ‘Trump Worries NATO with “Obsolete” Comment’, BBC News, January 16, 2017, https://doi.org/www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-38635181 (accessed May 22, 2017).
For the transcript, see: ‘May 25, 2017: President Trump’s Remarks at 9/11 and Article 5 Memorial Unveiling’, https://doi.org/nato.usmission.gov/may-25-2017-president-trumps-remarks-911-article-5-memorial-unveiling/ (accessed November 23, 2017). For the assertion about fears, see: Julie Smith, ‘Trump’s Article 5 Omission Was an Attack Against All of NATO’, Foreign Policy, May 26, 2017, https://doi.org/foreignpolicy.com/2017/05/26/trumps-article-5-omission-was-an-attack-against-all-of-nato/ (accessed June 22, 2017).
Andrew Kaczynski, Chris Massie, and Nathan McDermott, ‘80 times Trump talked about Putin’, CNN, March 2017, https://doi.org/www.cnn.com/interactive/2017/03/politics/trump-putin-russia-timeline/ (accessed June 6, 2017).
See also: Rob Huebert, ‘Donald Trump and Canadian International Security’, Journal of Military and Strategic Studies (2017): 89, and
James Masters and Ryan Browne, ‘Trump Defense Chief Mattis Tells NATO Members to Pay Up’, CNN News, February 15, 2017, https://doi.org/www.cnn.com/2017/02/15/politics/james-mattis-nato-brussels/ (accessed May 22, 2017).
Don Murray, ‘Lesser-known Walls: How Trump’s Presidency is Intensifying Fear in the Baltics’, CBC News, January 29, 2017, https://doi.org/www.cbc.ca/news/world/baltics-nato-trump-walls-1.3956504 (accessed June 6, 2017).
Ulrich Kühn, ‘U.S.-Russian Relations and the Future Security of Europe’, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, January 24, 2017, https://doi.org/carnegieendowment.org/2017/01/24/u.s.-russian-relations-and-future-security-of-europe-pub-67784 (accessed June 6, 2017).
Associated Press, ‘Transcript of AP interview with Trump’, April 23, 2017, https://doi.org/www.apnews.com/c810d7de280a47e88848b0ac74690c83 (accessed June 6, 2017).
‘Wolf Blitzer Interviews Donald Trump’, CNN Transcripts, January 7, 2016, https://doi.org/www.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/1601/07/wolf.02.html (accessed June 6, 2017).
‘Press conference by NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg following the meeting of NATO Heads of State and/or Government in Brussels on 25 May’, NATO, 26 May 2017, https://doi.org/nato.int/cps/en/natohq/opinions_144098.htm?selectedLocale=en (accessed 28 May 2017).
Ibid.
Jeffrey W. Knopf, ‘Varieties of Assurance’, Journal of Strategic Studies (2012): 376 and 381, and
Glenn Snyder, Alliance Politics (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997): 180–3.
See: ‘March 31, 2017: Intervention by Secretary of State Tillerson During NAC Meeting’, https://doi.org/nato.usmission.gov/secretary-tillerson-intervention-foreign-ministerial-march-31/ (accessed November 23, 2017), ‘May 25, 2017: President Trump’s Remarks at 9/11 and Article 5 Memorial Unveiling’, https://doi.org/nato.usmission.gov/may-25-2017-president-trumps-remarks-911-article-5-memorial-unveiling/ (accessed November 23, 2017), and ‘The Canada-US. Relationship’: 8–9.
NATO, ‘Wales Summit Declaration’, September 5, 2014, https://doi.org/www.nato.int/cps/ic/ natohq/official_texts_112964.htm (accessed June 7, 2017).
‘February 15, 2017: Intervention by Secretary of Defense Mattis, Session One of the North Atlantic Council’, https://doi.org/nato.usmission.gov/february-15-2017-intervention-secretary-defense-mattis-session-one-north-atlantic-council/ (accessed November 23, 2017). See also: Masters and Browne, February 15, 2017, and ‘U.S. Defence Secretary Tells NATO Countries to Increase Military Spending’, CBC News, February 15, 2017, https://doi.org/www.cbc.ca/news/world/us-mattis-defence-nato-spending-1.3985126 (accessed June 7, 2017).
‘Remarks by Secretary Mattis at the Munich Security Conference in Munich, Germany’, February 17, 2017, https://doi.org/www.defense.gov/News/Speeches/Speech-View/Article/1087838/ remarks-by-secretary-mattis-at-the-munich-security-conference-in-munich-germany/ (accessed November 16, 2017), and ‘Remarks by the Vice President at the Munich Security Conference’, February 18, 2017, https://doi.org/www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2017/02/18/ remarks-vice-president-munich-security-conference (accessed November 16, 2017).
‘Intervention by Secretary of State Tillerson During NAC Meeting’.
‘President Trump’s Remarks at 9/11 and Article 5 Memorial Unveiling’.
The Parliamentary Committee reported that some in Washington believed that the European members would be under greater pressure than Canada to address this. See: ‘The Canada-US. Relationship’, 4–5.
Jens Ringsmose, ‘NATO Burden-Sharing Redux: Continuity and Change after the Cold War’, Contemporary Security Policy 31 (2010): 324.
Charles Kupchan, ‘NATO and the Persian Gulf: Examining Intra-alliance Behaviour’, International Organization 42, no. 2 (Spring 1988): 323–4.
Ellen Hallams and Benjamin Schreer, ‘Towards a “Post-American” Alliance? NATO Burden-Sharing after Libya’, International Affairs 88, no. 2 (2012): 313–14, and Ringsmose, 321–3 and 325. For a Canadian-centric view, see
Christian Leuprecht and Joel J. Sokolsky, ‘Defence Policy “Walmart Style:” Canadian Lessons in “Not-so-Grand” Grand Strategy’ in Going to War? Trends in Military Interventions, ed. Stéfanie Von Hlatky and H. Christian Breede (Montréal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2016), 193–212.
Hallams and Schreer, ‘Towards a “Post-American” Alliance?’, 314.
Bow, The Politics of Linkage, 1–45.
Senate of Canada, ‘Military Underfunded: The Walk Must Match the Talk’, Report of the Standing Senate Committee on National Security and Defence (Ottawa: Parliament of Canada, 2017).
Senate, IV.
‘The Canada-U.S. Relationship’, v and 1.
Von Hlatky, American Allies in Times of War, 15 and 19.
Jakub Odehnal, ‘Military Expenditures and Free-Riding in NATO’, Peace Economic, Peace Science & Public Policy 21 (2015): 479–87.
For example, see: Strong, Secure, Engaged: Canada’s Defence Policy (Ottawa: Department of National Defence, 2017), 46. The chart applies the changes to the accounting methods associated with the annual report to NATO retroactively to Fiscal Year 2015–2016.
Joanna Smith, ‘Budget 2016: Liberals Try to Ease Anxiety and Get Canada Ready for the Future’, Canadian Press, March 22, 2017, and
Evan Solomon, ‘Unmasking Morneau, the Caped budget crusader’, Maclean’s, March 27, 2017.
Laura Stone, and Gloria Galloway, ‘Federal Budget Highlights: 10 Things you Need to Know’, Globe & Mail, March 23, 2017, https://doi.org/www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/ 2017-federal-budget-highlights-breakdown/article34380231/?cmpid=PM0317 (accessed May 22, 2017).
Murray Brewster, ‘Billions in Defence Equipment Purchases Postponed Until 2030s in Liberal Budget’, CBC News, March 22 2017, https://doi.org/www.cbc.ca/news/politics/liberal-budget-military-2017-1.4035424 (accessed May 22, 2017), and David Perry, ‘Bad News for Defence: Budget 2017’, Policy Update (Calgary: Canadian Global Affairs Institute, 2017), 1–3.
Kim Richard Nossal, Charlie Foxtrot: Fixing Defence Procurement in Canada (Toronto: Dundurn Books, 2016), 133.
Stone & Galloway, 23 March 2017.
Von Hlatky, American Allies in Times of War, 141.
David Cochrane, ‘Chrystia Freeland’s Foreign Policy Speech to Launch Peacekeeping Push’, CBC News, May 16, 2017, https://doi.org/www.cbc.ca/news/politics/freeland-foreign-policy-defence-review-peacekeeping-1.4115645 (accessed May 22, 2017).
Murray Brewster, ‘Defence Policy Review to be Released after Trudeau Meets NATO Allies in Brussels’, May 14, 2017, https://doi.org/www.cbc.ca/news/politics/defence-policy-review-brussels-1.4113720 (accessed May 22, 2017).
Unnamed senior official cited in Cochrane, 16 May 2017.
McKay, ‘Deliverology and Canadian Military Commitments’, 12.
Government of Canada, ‘Planned Full Time Equivalent (FTE) by Program by Organization — 2017–18’, https://doi.org/www.canada.ca/en/treasury-board-secretariat/services/planned-government-spending/reports-plans-priorities/planned-full-time-equivalent-program-organization-2017-2018.html (accessed June 13, 2017).
Lee Berthiaume, ‘Canada’s Top General Says Military Not Hurting for Money, Defends Spending Delay’, CBC News, March 30, 2017, https://doi.org/www.cbc.ca/news/politics/vance-sajjan-defence-spending-1.4048958 (accessed May 22, 2017), and
Lee Berthiaume, ‘Canada’s Top Soldier: Military isn’t Hurting for Money’, Maclean’s, March 30, 2017.
Nossal, Charlie Foxtrot.
Murray Brewster, ‘Cost is One Question — But Partisan Politics May Undo Liberal Defence Plan’, CBC News, June 11, 2017, https://doi.org/www.cbc.ca/news/politics/liberal-defence-policy-1. 4154679 (accessed June 11, 2017).
Strong, Secure, Engaged, 105.
Ibid.
Strong, Secure, Engaged: Canada’s Defence Policy (Ottawa: Department of National Defence, 2017), 43 and 46. Secretary-General Stoltenberg expressed his approval of the policy direction shortly thereafter. See: Catherine Tunney, ‘NATO’s Secretary General Hopes to See More of Canada Following Defence Plan’ CBC News, https://doi.org/www.cbc.ca/beta/news/politics/jens-stoltenberg-nato-role-europe-1.4151442 (accessed June 12, 2017).
Strong, Secure, Engaged, 46.
Ibid.
‘Defence Expenditures of NATO Countries (2009–2017)’
In mid-November, it was reported in the media that the Parliamentary Budget Officer disputed this assessment based on the rate of economic growth being higher than the assumptions. See: ‘Supplementary Estimates (B) 2017–2018’, https://doi.org/www.pbo-dpb.gc.ca/web/default/files/Documents/Reports/2017/Supps%20%28B%29%202017-18/Supps%20B% 202017-18_EN_2017-11-09.pdf (accessed November 21, 2017), 10–11.
Scott Taylor, ‘Trump’s Military Spending Increases Don’t Add Up’, Winnipeg Free Press, March 21, 2017, https://doi.org/www.winnipegfreepress.com/opinion/analysis/trumps-military-spending-increases-dont-add-up-416682774.html (accessed May 22, 2017). Another analyst argued that the use of the GDP measure goes unchallenged and is effectively fake news as Canada is the 16th largest spender on the military worldwide.
Steven Staples, cited in David Pugliese, ‘Doubling Defence Spending Wouldn’t Move Canada Higher Among NATO’s Ranks: Study’, National Post, May 25, 2017, https://doi.org/news.nationalpost.com/news/canada/doubling-defence-spending-wouldnt-move-canada-higher-among-natos-ranks-study (accessed June 7, 2017). A confirmation was done using the Stockholm Institute for Peace Research Institute’s Military Expenditure database (https://doi.org/www.sipri.org/databases/milex (accessed June 7, 2017). Comparing all states worldwide using 2015 Constant US Dollars and 2016 military spending, Canada ranked 15th, behind the US, the PRC, the Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, France, India, the UK, Japan, Germany, South Korea, Italy, Australia, Brazil and Israel.
‘Current Operations’ https://doi.org/www.forces.gc.ca/en/operations/current.page (accessed October 31, 2017).
For a discussion, see: McKay, ‘Deliverology and Canadian Military Commitments’.
Ibid.
‘Conspiracy theories aside, Canada is right to stand by Ukraine’, Toronto Star, March 10, 2017, https://doi.org/www.thestar.com/opinion/editorials/2017/03/09/conspiracy-theories-aside-canada-is-right-to-stand-by-ukraine-editorial.html (accessed June 6, 2017).
‘Current Operations’ https://doi.org/www.forces.gc.ca/en/operations/current.page (accessed October 31, 2017).
Murray Brewster, ‘Canada May Yet Have Peacekeeping Boots on the Ground in 2017’, CBC News, March 25, 2017, https://doi.org/www.cbc.ca/news/politics/canada-peacekeeping-line-up-1.4041420 (accessed May 22, 2017), and
Melissa Kent, ‘UN still waiting to see “concrete result” of Canada’s peacekeeping promise’, CBC News, March 24, 2017, https://doi.org/www.cbc.ca/news/world/peacekeeping-summit-un-1.4040691 (accessed May 8, 2017).
Murray Brewster, ‘Internal Documents Detail UN Peacekeeping Requests for Mali, Other Hotspots’, CBC News, June 19, 2017, https://doi.org/www.cbc.ca/news/politics/un-peacekeeping-list-1.4166429 (accessed June 22, 2017).
Murray Brewster, ‘Liberal Peacekeeping Decision Paused Because of Uncertainty Around Trump’, CBC News, January 21, 2017, https://doi.org/www.cbc.ca/news/politics/peacekeeping-pause-trump-1.3945847 (accessed May 22, 2017)
Alexander Panetta, ‘James “Mad Dog” Mattis Voices his Love for Canadian Troops’, Macleans, February 6, 2017, https://doi.org/www.macleans.ca/politics/washington/james-mad-dog-mattis-voices-his-love-for-canadian-troops/ (accessed May 22, 2017), and ‘UN Peacekeeping Mission Still Possible in 2017, Trudeau Says, Even though He’s Mum on the Details’, National Post, May 8, 2017, https://doi.org/news.nationalpost.com/news/canada/un-peacekeeping-mission-still-possible-in-2017-trudeau-says-even-though-hes-mum-on-the-details (accessed May 8, 2017)
Thomas Walkom, ‘How Trump Factors into Canada’s Peacekeeping Decision’, Toronto Star, March 10, 2017, and
Thomas Walkom, ‘Trump-Trudeau meeting polite but inconclusive’, Toronto Star, February 15, 2017.
Brewster, 25 March 2017, and Tracy Nelson, ‘President Trump’s Budget Blueprint and U.N. Blue Helmets’, Yale Journal of International Law, May 18, 2017, https://doi.org/www.yjil.yale.edu/president-trumps-budget-blueprint-and-u-n-blue-helmets/ (accessed June 22, 2017).
Mike Blanchfield, ‘Trudeau Confers with European Leaders on Trump, Freeland to Meet Til-lerson’, Canadian Press, February 8, 2017, and
Alexander Panetta, ‘Trump Promises Canada: No Wall for You, Only More “Bridges”, extra trade’, Canadian Press, February 13, 2017.
‘The Canada-U.S. Relationship’, 4.
Brewster, ‘Canada May Yet Have Peacekeeping Boots’, 25 March 2017.
Murray Brewster, ‘Canada’s Training Plan for UN Troops will be a Departure from Classic Peacekeeping’, CBC News, May 17, 2017, https://doi.org/www.cbc.ca/news/politics/liberals-peacekeeping-deployment-1.4118606 (accessed May 22, 2017).
Evan Dyer, ‘As Canada Ignores NATO’s Request, Afghanistan Slips Further into Chaos’, CBC News, November 3, 2017, https://doi.org/www.cbc.ca/news/world/afghanistan-canada-nato-1. 4381132 (accessed November 3, 2017). See also
Lee Berthiaume, ‘Military Planners Back at Drawing Board as Major Peacekeeping Summit in B.C. Looms’, Globe & Mail, October 15, 2017, https://doi.org/beta.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/military-planners-back-at-drawing-board-as-major-peacekeeping-summit-in-bc-looms/article36594536/ (accessed November 14, 2017), and
Murray Brewster, ‘Liberals to Offer Equipment, Training for Peacekeeping but No Mission Commitment’, CBC News, November 10, 2017, https://doi.org/www.cbc.ca/news/politics/un-canada-peacekeeping-1.4398508 (access November 14, 2017).
Brewster, ‘Canada May Yet Have Peacekeeping Boots’, 25 March 2017.
Murray Brewster, ‘Canada’s Training Plan for UN troops will be a Departure from Classic Peacekeeping’, May 17, 2017, https://doi.org/www.cbc.ca/news/politics/liberals-peacekeeping-deployment-1.4118606 (accessed May 22, 2017).
‘Canadian peacekeeping proposals out of line with UN priorities: sources’, CBC News, October 30, 2017, https://doi.org/www.cbc.ca/news/politics/canada-un-peacekeeping-summit-contributions-1.4375711 (accessed November 3, 2017).
Murray Brewster, ‘Liberals to Offer Equipment, Training for Peacekeeping but no Mission Commitment’, CBC News, November 10, 2017, https://doi.org/www.cbc.ca/news/politics/un-canada-peacekeeping-1.4398508 (access November 14, 2017).
‘Canada Bolsters Peacekeeping and Civilian Protection Measures’, November 15, 2017, News Release, https://doi.org/pm.gc.ca/eng/news/releases (accessed November 17, 2017). See also: ‘Pledges’, https://doi.org/www.canada.ca/en/department-national-defence/campaigns/ peacekeeping-defence-ministerial/pledges.html (accessed November 17, 2017).
Ian Bailey, ‘Trudeau Defends Canada’s New Peacekeeping Plan’, Globe & Mail, November 16, 2017, https://doi.org/www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/canada-offers-equipment-and-soldiers-for-peacekeeping-no-decision-on-where/article36985352/ (accessed November 17, 2017), and
Murray Brewster, “Canada Offering 200 Ground Troops for Future UN Peacekeeping Operations”, CBC News, November 15, 2017, https://doi.org/www.cbc.ca/news/politics/ peacekeeping-plan-trudeau-vancouver-1.4403192 (accessed November 17, 2017).
‘Canadian peacekeeping proposals out of line with UN priorities: sources’.
Alister Miskimmon, Ben O’Loughlin, and Laura Roselle, ‘Forging the World: Narratives and International Relations’, https://doi.org/static1.1.sqspcdn.com/static/f/127762/16079410/ 1326798495050/Forging±the±World±Working±Paper±2012.pdf?token= FzIoX39eqIRlx80uLHEZl3ZTcRo%3D (accessed November 16, 2017).
Ibid.
Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, cited in Mike Blanchfield, ‘Trudeau Says Canada One of NATO’s “Strongest actors” Without Committing More Money”, CBC News, February 17, 2017, https://doi.org/www.cbc.ca/news/politics/justin-trudeau-angela-merkel-germany-1. 3987562 (accessed May 22, 2017).
Lee Berthiaume, ‘Canadian Defence Spending Among Lowest in NATO Despite Small Increase Last Year’, Canadian Press, March 13, 2017, and
Thomas Walkom, ‘Justin Trudeau Explains Donald Trump to Europe’, Toronto Star, February 20, 2017.
Murray Brewster, ‘Canada Risks Wrath of Trump if it Doesn’t Boost Defence Cash: Senators’, CBC News, April 13, 2017, https://doi.org/www.cbc.ca/news/politics/canada-defence-spending-1.4069872 (accessed May 22, 2017). See also
Jennifer Campbell, ‘Interview with Andrew Leslie, Parliamentary Secretary for Canada-United States Relations’, Diplomat-International Canada (Spring 2017): 20–5.
Joanna Smith, ‘Trudeau Says Canada will Keep Sharing Intelligence Amid U.S. Controversies’, CBC News, May 25, 2017, https://doi.org/www.cbc.ca/news/politics/nato-brussels-thursday-1. 4130769 (accessed May 28, 2017).
Alexander Panetta, ‘James “Mad Dog” Mattis Voices His Love for Canadian Troops’, Maclean’s, February 6, 2017, https://doi.org/www.macleans.ca/politics/washington/james-mad-dog-mattis-voices-his-love-for-canadian-troops/ (accessed May 22, 2017).
‘NATO Leaders Agree to do More to Fight Terrorism and Ensure Fairer Burden Sharing’, NA TO, May 26, 2017, https://doi.org/nato.int/cps/en/natohq/news_144154.htm?selectedLocale=en (accessed May 28, 2017).
‘Defence Expenditures of NATO Countries (2009–2017)’. The member-states that have met the 2% of GDP pledge in 2016 are: the United States (3.58%), Greece (2.32%), the United Kingdom (2.14%), Estonia (2.14%), Romania (2.02%), and Poland (2.01%).
‘G7 Leaders Agree to Fight Protectionism, but U.S. Delays Decision on Climate Agreement’, CBC News, May 27, 2017, https://doi.org/www.cbc.ca/news/politics/g7-italy-1.4134310 (accessed May 28, 2017).
‘Canadian Foreign Policy’, Government Orders, House of Commons Debates, Official Report (Hansard), 148, no. 188, 6 June 2017, 1st Session, 42nd Parliament of Canada (Ottawa: Parliament of Canada, 2017), 12098–9.
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Dr J.R. McKay was educated at Bishop’s University, the Royal Military of College of Canada (RMC) and King’s College London. He is currently serving as the Associate Dean of Arts (Faculty) at RMC.
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McKay, J.R. Why Canada is best explained as a ‘reliable ally’ in 2017. J Transatl Stud 16, 137–164 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1080/14794012.2018.1450922
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14794012.2018.1450922