Abstract
This article attempts to reconstruct the formulation of US policy towards Eastern Europe on the eve of détente drawing from archival material not available or not utilised by earlier contributions. The central argument of this paper is that the USA, as détente progressed, were finally able to formulate, along with their allies, a policy of expanded contacts with Soviet Union’s East European satellites and that this policy of ‘bridge building’ could not, but in the most indirect manner, question the post-war division of Europe. Moreover, this policy did not consider Moscow’s allies autonomously but subjected the issue of Eastern Europe to the German question.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
Gunter Bischof, ‘United States Responses to the Soviet Suppression of Rebellions in the German Democratic Republic, Hungary and Czechoslovakia’, Diplomacy and Statecraft 22, no. 1 (2011): 61–80
Chris Tudda, ‘Reenacting the Story of Tantalus. Eisenhower, Dulles, and the Failed Rhetoric of Liberation’, Journal of Cold War Studies 7, no. 4 (2005): 3–35
See also Archie Brown, The Rise an d Fall of Communism (London: Vintage, 2010), 267–92.
Benet Kovrig, Of Walls and Bridges. The United States and Eastern Europe (New York: New York University Press, 1991), 106
Christian Herter, ‘Poland? Yugoslavia? Why Help Communists?’, New York Times, 1 July 1962.
John Gearson and Kori Schake, eds., The Berlin Wall Crisis: Perspectives of Cold War Alliances (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002)
Alistair Horne, ‘Kennedy and Mac-millan’, in John F. Kennedy and Europe, eds. Douglas Brinkley and Richard Griffiths (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1999), 4–5.
Alan Dobson, ‘The Changing Goals of the US Cold Ware Strategic Embargo’, Journal of Cold War Studies 12, no. 1 (2010), 106–7
Ian Jackson, The Economic Cold War: America, Britain and East-West Trade (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001), 9–10.
Dobson, ‘The Changing Goals of the Cold War Strategic Embargo’, 99–103, 107.
Roger Morgan, ‘Kennedy and Adenauer’, in John F. Kennedy and Europe, ed. Douglas Brinkley and Richard Griffiths (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1999), 16–31.
Evanthis Hatzivassiliou, Greece and the Cold War: Frontline State, 1952–1967 (London: Routledge, 2006), 98–106.
Bruce Kuniholm, ‘Turkey’s Jupiter Missiles and the US-Turkish Relationship’, in John F. Kennedy and Europe, ed. Brinkley and Griffiths, 116–28.
Brown, The Rise and Fall of Communism, 318–24; Robert Service, Comrades. Communism: A World History (Basingstoke: Pan Books, 2009), 320–1.
Marc Selverstone, Constructing the Monolith: The United States, Great Britain, and International Communism, 1945–1950 (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 2009).
Ann Lane, ‘Coming to Terms with Tito: Britain and Yugoslavia, 1945–49’, in Intelligence, Defence and Diplomacy: British Policy in the Postwar World, ed. Richard Aldrich and Michael Hopkins (London: FrankCass, 1994), 13–41
Loraine Lees, Keeping Tito Afloat: The United States, Yugoslavia and the Cold War (Philadelphia: Penn State University Press, 1997)
Svetojar Rajak, ‘The Cold War in the Balkans, 1945–1956’, in The Cambridge History of the Cold War, ed. Melvyn Leffler and Odd Arne Westad (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), vol. I, 198–220; Brown, The Rise and Fall of Communism, 203–9; Service, Comrades, 251–60.
A. Paul Kubricht, ‘Politics and Foreign Policy: A Brief Look at the Kennedy Administration’s Eastern European Diplomacy’, Diplomatic History 11, no. 1 (1987), 57–9.
See John Lewis Gaddis, Strategies for Containment (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 24–86.
David Mayers, George Kennan and the Dilemmas of US Foreign Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 225–6, 232–3.
Mayers, George Kennan and the Dilemmas of US Foreign Policy, 207–8.
David Engerman, Know Your Enemy. The Rise and Fall of America’s Soviet Experts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 209, 221.
Zbigniew Brzezinski and William Griffith, ‘Peaceful Engagement in Eastern Europe’, Foreign Affairs 39, no. 4 (1961), 642–54.
Kovrig, Of Walls and Bridges, 107.
Richard Aldrich, The Hidden Hand: Britain, America and Cold War Secret Intelligence (London: John Murray, 2001), 152–4, 160–6, 333.
Briggs (US Embassy Athens) to State Department, 14 December 1961, J.F. Kennedy Presidential Library National Security Council Files/Country File: Albania General 1961–1963; British Embassy Athens to Foreign Office, 9 January 1962, The National Archives of the United Kingdom (thereafter TNA), NA 103119/4, FO 371/165803.
Memorandum United Kingdom Delegation to NATO: North Atlantic Council. Policy Towards the East European Satellites, Council Meeting: Wednesday, July 25, 1962, TNA, CY 1044/3, FO 371/163926.
Academic elaboration of the concept in Pierre Renouvin and Jean Baptiste Duroselle, Introduction a l’ histoire des relations internationals (Paris: Agora, 1991).
Georges-Henri Soutou, ‘France and the Cold War, 1944–1963’, Diplomacy and Statectaft 12, no. 4 (2001), 48.
Memorandum UK Delegation to NATO, 25 July 1962, TNA, CY 1044/3, FO 371/ 163926.
Memorandum UK Delegation to NATO, 25 July 1962, TNA, CY 1044/3, FO 371/ 163926.
Morgan, ‘Kennedy and Adenauer’, 22–9.
See a succinct presentation of these issues in General Maxwell Taylor to President Kennedy, 3 April 1962, FRUS 1961–1963, XIII, 368–73.
J. M. Cabot (US Embassy Warsaw) to State Department, A-873: ‘Poland-Basic Policy. What are we trying to do in Poland?’, 25 April 1963, Foreign Relations of the United States (thereafter FRUS) 1961–1963, XVI, 161–2.
Kubricht, ‘Politics and Foreign Policy’, 59–60.
Kubricht, ‘Politics and Foreign Policy’, 61.
G. Kennan, draft: ‘Considerations Bearing on the Problem of Western Policy towards Yugoslavia’, 6 January 1962, TNA, CY 1044/1(D), FO 371/163926.
Foreign Office to British Embassy Belgrade, 4 January 1962, TNA, CY 1044/1, FO 371/ 163926.
Rajak, ‘The Cold War in the Balkans’, 216–9.
Memorandum D. Klein (National Security Council Staff) to Mc George Bundy (President’s Special Assistant for National Security Affairs), 17 April 1962, FRUS 1961–1963, XVI, 260–1.
G. Kennan (US Embassy Belgrade) to State Department, 28 November 1962, FRUS 1961–1963, XVI, 292–309.
Kulbricht, ‘Politics and Foreign Policy’, 64.
Zbigniew Brzezinski, ‘Threat and Opportunity in the Communist Schism’, Foreign Affairs 41, no. 3 (1963), 513–25.
On the US-West European relationship see Thomas Alan Schwartz, Lyndon Johnson and Europe (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003)
James Ellison, ‘Stabilising the West and Looking to the East. Anglo-American Relations, Europe and Détente, 1965 to 1967’, in European Integration and the Cold War: Ostopolitik-Westpolitik, 1965–1973, ed. N. Piers Ludlow (London: Routledge, 2007), 105–27.
On the Harmel Report Frederic Bozo, ‘Détente versus Alliance: France, the United States and the Politics of the Harmel Report (1964–1968)’, Contemporary European History 7, no. 3 (1998), 343–60.
Central Intelligence Agency/Office of National Estimates memorandum: ‘Unsettling Developments in Eastern Europe’, 15 June 1963, J.F. Kennedy Presidential Library, National Security Files/Country Files: Eastern Europe General, 6/63.
CIA/Office of Current Intelligence memorandum: ‘Diversity and Change in Eastern Europe’, 21 June 1963, J.F. Kennedy Presidential Library, National Security Files/ Country Files: Eastern Europe General, 6/63.
INR Research Memorandum, RSB-90, 18 June 1963, J.F. Kennedy Presidential Library, National Security Files/Country Files: Eastern Europe General, 6/63.
Dobson, ‘Changing Goals of the US Cold War Strategic Embargo’, 109–11; Kovrig, Of Walls and Bridges, 108.
Kulbricht, ‘Politics and Foreign Policy’, 64.
New York Times, October 26, 1963.
Kovrig, Of Walls and Bridges, 108.
Arthur Schlesinger, A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1965), 916–7.
John Dumbrell, President Lyndon Johnson and Soviet Communism (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004), 24–5.
John Micklethwait and Adrian Wooldridge, The Right Nation (London: Penguin Books, 2005), 56.
New York Times, October 5, 1963.
George F. Kennan, ‘Polycentrism and Western Policy’, Foreign Affairs 42, no. 2 (1964), 171–83.
Christopher Hull, ‘“Going to War in Buses”: The Anglo-American Clash over Leyland Sales to Cuba, 1963–1964’, Diplomatic History 34, no. 5 (2010), 816–22.
Memorandum by the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs and the President of the Board of Trade: Export of Large Diameter Steel Pipe to the Soviet Bloc, 10 April 1963, TNA, C (63)60, CAB 129/113.
The Times, May 14, 1964.
Hull, ‘Going to War in Buses’, 797. Press commentary in Edwin L. Dale Jr., ‘Dispute Grows Over Western Trade With the Communist Bloc’, New York Times, March 1, 1964; Tad Szulc, ‘Rusk and Butler Look For Benefit From Reds’ Split’, New York Times, April 28, 1964; Drew Middleton, ‘US-British Clash on Red Trade Due’, New York Times, May 8, 1964.
Edwin L. Dale Jr. ‘Dispute Grows Over Western Trade with the Communist Bloc’, New York Times, March 1, 1964.
Circular telegram of the Department of State to All European Posts, February 14, 1964, FRUS 1964–1968, XII, doc. 225.
Mitchell Lerner, ‘Trying to Find the Guy Who Invited Them’: Lyndon Johnson, Bridge Building, and the end of the Prague Spring’, Diplomatic History 32, no. 1 (2008), 85–6.
Jussi Hanhimaki, The Rise and Fall of Détente American Foreign Policy and the Transformation of the Cold War (Washington, DC: Potomac Books), 14.
M. Couve de Murville (ministre des affaires etrangeres) aux representants diplomatiques de la France a l’ etranger, 9 December 1964, Documents Diplomatiques Francais, 1964, tome II, 531–33.
Hanhimaki, The Rise and Fall of Détente, 11.
Special Report by the Central Intelligence Agency: ‘Nationalism in Eastern Europe’, 27 March 1964, FRUS 1964–1968, vol. XVII, doc. 2.
Lerner, ‘Trying to Find the Guy Who Invited Them’, 84.
See Report to Nicolae Causescu on the Meeting of the Political Consultative Committee in Sofia, June 3, 1968 Vojtech Mastny and Malcolm Byrne (eds), A Cardboard Castle? An Inside History of the Warsaw Pact 1955–1991 (Budapest: Central European University Press, 2005), 264–69.
Minutes of Summit of Warsaw Pact Leaders in Bucharest, July 5–7, 1966, Mastny and Byrne (eds), A Cardboard Castle? 225–36.
Hanhimaki, The Rise and Fall of Détente, 13.
Record of a Discussion: Highlights from the Secretary’s Policy Planning Meeting held March 31, 1964, FRUS 1964–1968, XVII, doc. 3.
Schwartz, Lyndon Johnson and Europe, 19.
Max Frankel, ‘Johnson Speech an Offer to East’, New York Times, May 24, 1964.
Memorandum R.J. Smith (Deputy Director for Intelligence) to J. McCone (Director for Intelligence): ‘Bridges to Eastern Europe’, 25 June 1964, FRUS 1964–1968, XVII, doc. 6.
Hanhimaki, The Rise and Fall of Détente, 14; Lerner, ‘Trying to Find the Guy Who Had Invited Them’, 79.
Lerner, ‘Trying to Find the Guy Who Invited Them’, 86.
Lerner, ‘Trying to Find the Guy Who Invited Them’, 88–9.
Record of Discussion: Highlights from the Secretary’s Policy Planning Meeting held July 27, 1964, FRUS 1964–1968, XVII, doc. 8.
Schwartz, Lyndon Johnson and Europe, 133–6.
Bozo, ‘Détente versus Alliance’, 346–50.
Mark Kramer, ‘New Sources on the 1968 Soviet Invasion of Czechoslovakia’, Cold War International History Project Bulletin, no. 2, Fall 1992, 11
Mark Kramer, ‘The Prague Spring and the Invasion of Czechoslovakia: New Interpretations’, Cold War International History Project Bulletin, Issue 3, Fall 1993, 5.
Transcript of the Meeting of Five Warsaw Pact States in Warsaw, July 14–15, 1968; Mastny and Byrne (eds), A Cardboard Castle?, 297.
Kramer, ‘The Prague Spring and the Invasion of Czechoslovakia’, 5–6.
Report to Nicolae Causescu on the Meeting of the Political Consultative Committee in Sofia, June 3, 1968; Mastny and Byrnes (eds), A Cardboard Castle?, 266–7.
Leonid Brezhnev to Alexander Dubcek, 11 April 1968; Jaromil Navratil (ed.), The Prague Spring ‘68 (Budapest: Central European University Press, 1998), 98–9.
Kramer, ‘The Prague Spring and the Invasion of Czechoslovakia’, 7–8.
L. Brezhnev speech to the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Central Committee, 17 July 1968; Navratil (ed.), The Prague Spring’ 68, 258.
Bischof, ‘United States Responses to the Soviet Suppression of Rebellions in the German Democratic Republic, Hungary and Czechoslovakia’, 73–5; Schwartz, Lyndon Johnson and Europe, 214–7.
Lerner, ‘Trying to Find the Guy Who Invited Them’, 77.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Notes on contributor
Sotiris Rizas completed his doctorate at the Panteion University of Social and Political Sciences (Athens) in 1992. He is director of research at the Academy of Athens Modern Greek History Research Centre. During 2012–2013, he taught a graduate seminar (jointly National Research Foundation, University of Athens, Panteion University) on US policy towards the Greek military regime (1967–1974) and American and British policy towards Cyprus (1963–1974).
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Rizas, S. Formulating a policy towards Eastern Europe on the eve of Détente: The USA, the Allies and Bridge Building, 1961–1964. J Transatl Stud 12, 18–40 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1080/14794012.2014.871430
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14794012.2014.871430