Skip to main content
Log in

Formulating a policy towards Eastern Europe on the eve of Détente: The USA, the Allies and Bridge Building, 1961–1964

  • Article
  • Published:
Journal of Transatlantic Studies Aims and scope

Abstract

This article attempts to reconstruct the formulation of US policy towards Eastern Europe on the eve of détente drawing from archival material not available or not utilised by earlier contributions. The central argument of this paper is that the USA, as détente progressed, were finally able to formulate, along with their allies, a policy of expanded contacts with Soviet Union’s East European satellites and that this policy of ‘bridge building’ could not, but in the most indirect manner, question the post-war division of Europe. Moreover, this policy did not consider Moscow’s allies autonomously but subjected the issue of Eastern Europe to the German question.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Gunter Bischof, ‘United States Responses to the Soviet Suppression of Rebellions in the German Democratic Republic, Hungary and Czechoslovakia’, Diplomacy and Statecraft 22, no. 1 (2011): 61–80

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Chris Tudda, ‘Reenacting the Story of Tantalus. Eisenhower, Dulles, and the Failed Rhetoric of Liberation’, Journal of Cold War Studies 7, no. 4 (2005): 3–35

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. See also Archie Brown, The Rise an d Fall of Communism (London: Vintage, 2010), 267–92.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Benet Kovrig, Of Walls and Bridges. The United States and Eastern Europe (New York: New York University Press, 1991), 106

    Google Scholar 

  5. Christian Herter, ‘Poland? Yugoslavia? Why Help Communists?’, New York Times, 1 July 1962.

    Google Scholar 

  6. John Gearson and Kori Schake, eds., The Berlin Wall Crisis: Perspectives of Cold War Alliances (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002)

    Book  Google Scholar 

  7. Alistair Horne, ‘Kennedy and Mac-millan’, in John F. Kennedy and Europe, eds. Douglas Brinkley and Richard Griffiths (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1999), 4–5.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Alan Dobson, ‘The Changing Goals of the US Cold Ware Strategic Embargo’, Journal of Cold War Studies 12, no. 1 (2010), 106–7

    Google Scholar 

  9. Ian Jackson, The Economic Cold War: America, Britain and East-West Trade (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001), 9–10.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  10. Dobson, ‘The Changing Goals of the Cold War Strategic Embargo’, 99–103, 107.

  11. Roger Morgan, ‘Kennedy and Adenauer’, in John F. Kennedy and Europe, ed. Douglas Brinkley and Richard Griffiths (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1999), 16–31.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Evanthis Hatzivassiliou, Greece and the Cold War: Frontline State, 1952–1967 (London: Routledge, 2006), 98–106.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  13. Bruce Kuniholm, ‘Turkey’s Jupiter Missiles and the US-Turkish Relationship’, in John F. Kennedy and Europe, ed. Brinkley and Griffiths, 116–28.

  14. Brown, The Rise and Fall of Communism, 318–24; Robert Service, Comrades. Communism: A World History (Basingstoke: Pan Books, 2009), 320–1.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Marc Selverstone, Constructing the Monolith: The United States, Great Britain, and International Communism, 1945–1950 (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 2009).

    Google Scholar 

  16. Ann Lane, ‘Coming to Terms with Tito: Britain and Yugoslavia, 1945–49’, in Intelligence, Defence and Diplomacy: British Policy in the Postwar World, ed. Richard Aldrich and Michael Hopkins (London: FrankCass, 1994), 13–41

    Google Scholar 

  17. Loraine Lees, Keeping Tito Afloat: The United States, Yugoslavia and the Cold War (Philadelphia: Penn State University Press, 1997)

    Google Scholar 

  18. Svetojar Rajak, ‘The Cold War in the Balkans, 1945–1956’, in The Cambridge History of the Cold War, ed. Melvyn Leffler and Odd Arne Westad (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), vol. I, 198–220; Brown, The Rise and Fall of Communism, 203–9; Service, Comrades, 251–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. A. Paul Kubricht, ‘Politics and Foreign Policy: A Brief Look at the Kennedy Administration’s Eastern European Diplomacy’, Diplomatic History 11, no. 1 (1987), 57–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. See John Lewis Gaddis, Strategies for Containment (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 24–86.

    Google Scholar 

  21. David Mayers, George Kennan and the Dilemmas of US Foreign Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 225–6, 232–3.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Mayers, George Kennan and the Dilemmas of US Foreign Policy, 207–8.

  23. David Engerman, Know Your Enemy. The Rise and Fall of America’s Soviet Experts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 209, 221.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Zbigniew Brzezinski and William Griffith, ‘Peaceful Engagement in Eastern Europe’, Foreign Affairs 39, no. 4 (1961), 642–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Kovrig, Of Walls and Bridges, 107.

  26. Richard Aldrich, The Hidden Hand: Britain, America and Cold War Secret Intelligence (London: John Murray, 2001), 152–4, 160–6, 333.

    Google Scholar 

  27. Briggs (US Embassy Athens) to State Department, 14 December 1961, J.F. Kennedy Presidential Library National Security Council Files/Country File: Albania General 1961–1963; British Embassy Athens to Foreign Office, 9 January 1962, The National Archives of the United Kingdom (thereafter TNA), NA 103119/4, FO 371/165803.

  28. Memorandum United Kingdom Delegation to NATO: North Atlantic Council. Policy Towards the East European Satellites, Council Meeting: Wednesday, July 25, 1962, TNA, CY 1044/3, FO 371/163926.

  29. Academic elaboration of the concept in Pierre Renouvin and Jean Baptiste Duroselle, Introduction a l’ histoire des relations internationals (Paris: Agora, 1991).

  30. Georges-Henri Soutou, ‘France and the Cold War, 1944–1963’, Diplomacy and Statectaft 12, no. 4 (2001), 48.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Memorandum UK Delegation to NATO, 25 July 1962, TNA, CY 1044/3, FO 371/ 163926.

  32. Memorandum UK Delegation to NATO, 25 July 1962, TNA, CY 1044/3, FO 371/ 163926.

  33. Morgan, ‘Kennedy and Adenauer’, 22–9.

  34. See a succinct presentation of these issues in General Maxwell Taylor to President Kennedy, 3 April 1962, FRUS 1961–1963, XIII, 368–73.

  35. J. M. Cabot (US Embassy Warsaw) to State Department, A-873: ‘Poland-Basic Policy. What are we trying to do in Poland?’, 25 April 1963, Foreign Relations of the United States (thereafter FRUS) 1961–1963, XVI, 161–2.

  36. Kubricht, ‘Politics and Foreign Policy’, 59–60.

  37. Kubricht, ‘Politics and Foreign Policy’, 61.

  38. G. Kennan, draft: ‘Considerations Bearing on the Problem of Western Policy towards Yugoslavia’, 6 January 1962, TNA, CY 1044/1(D), FO 371/163926.

  39. Foreign Office to British Embassy Belgrade, 4 January 1962, TNA, CY 1044/1, FO 371/ 163926.

  40. Rajak, ‘The Cold War in the Balkans’, 216–9.

  41. Memorandum D. Klein (National Security Council Staff) to Mc George Bundy (President’s Special Assistant for National Security Affairs), 17 April 1962, FRUS 1961–1963, XVI, 260–1.

  42. G. Kennan (US Embassy Belgrade) to State Department, 28 November 1962, FRUS 1961–1963, XVI, 292–309.

  43. Kulbricht, ‘Politics and Foreign Policy’, 64.

  44. Zbigniew Brzezinski, ‘Threat and Opportunity in the Communist Schism’, Foreign Affairs 41, no. 3 (1963), 513–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. On the US-West European relationship see Thomas Alan Schwartz, Lyndon Johnson and Europe (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003)

    Google Scholar 

  46. James Ellison, ‘Stabilising the West and Looking to the East. Anglo-American Relations, Europe and Détente, 1965 to 1967’, in European Integration and the Cold War: Ostopolitik-Westpolitik, 1965–1973, ed. N. Piers Ludlow (London: Routledge, 2007), 105–27.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  47. On the Harmel Report Frederic Bozo, ‘Détente versus Alliance: France, the United States and the Politics of the Harmel Report (1964–1968)’, Contemporary European History 7, no. 3 (1998), 343–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Central Intelligence Agency/Office of National Estimates memorandum: ‘Unsettling Developments in Eastern Europe’, 15 June 1963, J.F. Kennedy Presidential Library, National Security Files/Country Files: Eastern Europe General, 6/63.

  49. CIA/Office of Current Intelligence memorandum: ‘Diversity and Change in Eastern Europe’, 21 June 1963, J.F. Kennedy Presidential Library, National Security Files/ Country Files: Eastern Europe General, 6/63.

  50. INR Research Memorandum, RSB-90, 18 June 1963, J.F. Kennedy Presidential Library, National Security Files/Country Files: Eastern Europe General, 6/63.

  51. Dobson, ‘Changing Goals of the US Cold War Strategic Embargo’, 109–11; Kovrig, Of Walls and Bridges, 108.

  52. Kulbricht, ‘Politics and Foreign Policy’, 64.

  53. New York Times, October 26, 1963.

  54. Kovrig, Of Walls and Bridges, 108.

  55. Arthur Schlesinger, A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1965), 916–7.

    Google Scholar 

  56. John Dumbrell, President Lyndon Johnson and Soviet Communism (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004), 24–5.

    Google Scholar 

  57. John Micklethwait and Adrian Wooldridge, The Right Nation (London: Penguin Books, 2005), 56.

    Google Scholar 

  58. New York Times, October 5, 1963.

  59. George F. Kennan, ‘Polycentrism and Western Policy’, Foreign Affairs 42, no. 2 (1964), 171–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Christopher Hull, ‘“Going to War in Buses”: The Anglo-American Clash over Leyland Sales to Cuba, 1963–1964’, Diplomatic History 34, no. 5 (2010), 816–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Memorandum by the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs and the President of the Board of Trade: Export of Large Diameter Steel Pipe to the Soviet Bloc, 10 April 1963, TNA, C (63)60, CAB 129/113.

  62. The Times, May 14, 1964.

  63. Hull, ‘Going to War in Buses’, 797. Press commentary in Edwin L. Dale Jr., ‘Dispute Grows Over Western Trade With the Communist Bloc’, New York Times, March 1, 1964; Tad Szulc, ‘Rusk and Butler Look For Benefit From Reds’ Split’, New York Times, April 28, 1964; Drew Middleton, ‘US-British Clash on Red Trade Due’, New York Times, May 8, 1964.

  64. Edwin L. Dale Jr. ‘Dispute Grows Over Western Trade with the Communist Bloc’, New York Times, March 1, 1964.

    Google Scholar 

  65. Circular telegram of the Department of State to All European Posts, February 14, 1964, FRUS 1964–1968, XII, doc. 225.

  66. Mitchell Lerner, ‘Trying to Find the Guy Who Invited Them’: Lyndon Johnson, Bridge Building, and the end of the Prague Spring’, Diplomatic History 32, no. 1 (2008), 85–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  67. Jussi Hanhimaki, The Rise and Fall of Détente American Foreign Policy and the Transformation of the Cold War (Washington, DC: Potomac Books), 14.

  68. M. Couve de Murville (ministre des affaires etrangeres) aux representants diplomatiques de la France a l’ etranger, 9 December 1964, Documents Diplomatiques Francais, 1964, tome II, 531–33.

  69. Hanhimaki, The Rise and Fall of Détente, 11.

  70. Special Report by the Central Intelligence Agency: ‘Nationalism in Eastern Europe’, 27 March 1964, FRUS 1964–1968, vol. XVII, doc. 2.

  71. Lerner, ‘Trying to Find the Guy Who Invited Them’, 84.

  72. See Report to Nicolae Causescu on the Meeting of the Political Consultative Committee in Sofia, June 3, 1968 Vojtech Mastny and Malcolm Byrne (eds), A Cardboard Castle? An Inside History of the Warsaw Pact 1955–1991 (Budapest: Central European University Press, 2005), 264–69.

  73. Minutes of Summit of Warsaw Pact Leaders in Bucharest, July 5–7, 1966, Mastny and Byrne (eds), A Cardboard Castle? 225–36.

  74. Hanhimaki, The Rise and Fall of Détente, 13.

  75. Record of a Discussion: Highlights from the Secretary’s Policy Planning Meeting held March 31, 1964, FRUS 1964–1968, XVII, doc. 3.

  76. Schwartz, Lyndon Johnson and Europe, 19.

  77. Max Frankel, ‘Johnson Speech an Offer to East’, New York Times, May 24, 1964.

    Google Scholar 

  78. Memorandum R.J. Smith (Deputy Director for Intelligence) to J. McCone (Director for Intelligence): ‘Bridges to Eastern Europe’, 25 June 1964, FRUS 1964–1968, XVII, doc. 6.

  79. Hanhimaki, The Rise and Fall of Détente, 14; Lerner, ‘Trying to Find the Guy Who Had Invited Them’, 79.

  80. Lerner, ‘Trying to Find the Guy Who Invited Them’, 86.

  81. Lerner, ‘Trying to Find the Guy Who Invited Them’, 88–9.

  82. Record of Discussion: Highlights from the Secretary’s Policy Planning Meeting held July 27, 1964, FRUS 1964–1968, XVII, doc. 8.

  83. Schwartz, Lyndon Johnson and Europe, 133–6.

  84. Bozo, ‘Détente versus Alliance’, 346–50.

  85. Mark Kramer, ‘New Sources on the 1968 Soviet Invasion of Czechoslovakia’, Cold War International History Project Bulletin, no. 2, Fall 1992, 11

    Google Scholar 

  86. Mark Kramer, ‘The Prague Spring and the Invasion of Czechoslovakia: New Interpretations’, Cold War International History Project Bulletin, Issue 3, Fall 1993, 5.

    Google Scholar 

  87. Transcript of the Meeting of Five Warsaw Pact States in Warsaw, July 14–15, 1968; Mastny and Byrne (eds), A Cardboard Castle?, 297.

  88. Kramer, ‘The Prague Spring and the Invasion of Czechoslovakia’, 5–6.

  89. Report to Nicolae Causescu on the Meeting of the Political Consultative Committee in Sofia, June 3, 1968; Mastny and Byrnes (eds), A Cardboard Castle?, 266–7.

  90. Leonid Brezhnev to Alexander Dubcek, 11 April 1968; Jaromil Navratil (ed.), The Prague Spring ‘68 (Budapest: Central European University Press, 1998), 98–9.

    Google Scholar 

  91. Kramer, ‘The Prague Spring and the Invasion of Czechoslovakia’, 7–8.

  92. L. Brezhnev speech to the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Central Committee, 17 July 1968; Navratil (ed.), The Prague Spring’ 68, 258.

  93. Bischof, ‘United States Responses to the Soviet Suppression of Rebellions in the German Democratic Republic, Hungary and Czechoslovakia’, 73–5; Schwartz, Lyndon Johnson and Europe, 214–7.

  94. Lerner, ‘Trying to Find the Guy Who Invited Them’, 77.

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sotiris Rizas.

Additional information

Notes on contributor

Sotiris Rizas completed his doctorate at the Panteion University of Social and Political Sciences (Athens) in 1992. He is director of research at the Academy of Athens Modern Greek History Research Centre. During 2012–2013, he taught a graduate seminar (jointly National Research Foundation, University of Athens, Panteion University) on US policy towards the Greek military regime (1967–1974) and American and British policy towards Cyprus (1963–1974).

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Rizas, S. Formulating a policy towards Eastern Europe on the eve of Détente: The USA, the Allies and Bridge Building, 1961–1964. J Transatl Stud 12, 18–40 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1080/14794012.2014.871430

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14794012.2014.871430

Keywords

Navigation