Skip to main content

Autistic disorder and viral infections

Journal of NeuroVirology volume 11, pages 1–10 (2005)Cite this article

Abstract

Autistic disorder (autism) is a behaviorally defined developmental disorder with a wide range of behaviors. Although the etiology of autism is unknown, data suggest that autism results from multiple etiologies with both genetic and environmental contributions, which may explain the spectrum of behaviors seen in this disorder. One proposed etiology for autism is viral infection very early in development. The mechanism, by which viral infection may lead to autism, be it through direct infection of the central nervous system (CNS), through infection elsewhere in the body acting as a trigger for disease in the CNS, through alteration of the immune response of the mother or offspring, or through a combination of these, is not yet known. Animal models in which early viral infection results in behavioral changes later in life include the influenza virus model in pregnant mice and the Borna disease virus model in newborn Lewis rats. Many studies over the years have presented evidence both for and against the association of autism with various viral infections. The best association to date has been made between congenital rubella and autism; however, members of the herpes virus family may also have a role in autism. Recently, controversy has arisen as to the involvement of measles virus and/or the measles, mumps, rubella (MMR) vaccine in the development of autism. Biological assays lend support to the association between measles virus or MMR and autism whereas epidemiologic studies show no association between MMR and autism. Further research is needed to clarify both the mechanisms whereby viral infection early in development may lead to autism and the possible involvement of the MMR vaccine in the development of autism.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

43,34 €

Price includes VAT (Finland)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

References

  • Adams JM, Imagawa DT (1962). Measles antibodies in multiple sclerosis. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 111: 562–566.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th (DSM-IV) edition. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anlar B, Oktem F, Torok T (1994). Human parvovirus B19 antibodies in infantile autism. J Child Neurol 9: 104–105.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Araujo DM, Lapchak PA, Collier B, Quirion R (1989). Localization of interleukin-2 immunoreactivity and interleukin-2 receptors in the rat brain: interaction with the cholinergic system. Brain Res 498: 257–266.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey A, Le Couteur A, Gottesman I, Bolton P, Simonoff E, Yuzda E, Rutter M (1995). Autism as a strongly genetic disorder: evidence from a British twin study. Psychol Med 25: 63–77.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barak Y, Kimhi R, Stein D, Gutman J, Weizman A (1999). Autistic subjects with comorbid epilepsy: a possible association with viral infections. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 29: 245–251.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartlik BD (1981). Monthly variation in births of autistic children in North Carolina. J Am Med Womens Assoc 36: 363–368.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blattner RJ (1974). The role of viruses in congenital defects. Am J Dis Child 128: 781–786.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chakrabarti S, Fombonne E (2001). Pervasive developmental disorders in preschool children. JAMA 285: 3093–3099.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Challoner PB, Smith KT, Parker JD, MacLeod DL, Coulter SN, Rose TM, Schultz ER, Bennett JL, Garber RL, Chang M (1995). Plaque-associated expression of human herpesvirus 6 in multiple sclerosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 92: 7440–7444.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chess S (1971). Autism in children with congenital rubella. J Autism Child Schizophr 1: 33–47.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chess S (1977). Follow-up report on autism in congenital rubella. J Autism Child Schizophr 7: 69–81.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ciaranello AL, Ciaranello RD (1995). The neurobiology of infantile autism. Annu Rev Neurosci 18: 101–128.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coleman M, Gillberg C (1985). The biology of the autistic syndromes. New York: Praeger Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Comi AM, Zimmerman AW, Frye VH, Law PA, Peeden JN (1999). Familial clustering of autoimmune disorders and evaluation of medical risk factors in autism. J Child Neurol 14: 388–394.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Connolly AM, Chez MG, Pestronk A, Arnold ST, Mehta S, Deuel RK (1999). Serum autoantibodies to brain in Landau-Kleffner variant, autism, and other neurologic disorders. J Pediatr 134: 607–613.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cook EH Jr (2001). Genetics of autism. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 10: 333–350.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Croen LA, Grether JK, Hoogstrate J, Selvin S (2002). The changing prevalence of autism in California. J Autism Dev Disord 32: 207–215.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dales L, Hammer SJ, Smith NJ (2001). Time trends in autism and in MMR immunization coverage in California. JAMA 285: 1183–1185.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dalod M, Salazar-Mather TP, Malmgaard L, Lewis C, Asselin-Paturel C, Briere F, Trinchieri G, Biron CA (2002). Interferon α/β and interleukin 12 responses to viral infections: pathways regulating dendritic cell cytokine expression in vivo. J Exp Med 195: 517–528.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dalton P, Deacon R, Blamire A, Pike M, McKinlay I, Stein J, Styles P, Vincent A (2003). Maternal neuronal antibodies associated with autism and a language disorder. Ann Neurol 53: 533–537.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Long GR, Bean SC, Brown FR III (1981). Acquired reversible autistic syndrome in acute encephalopathic illness in children. Arch Neurol 38: 191–194.

    Google Scholar 

  • Desmond MM, Wilson GS, Verniaud WM, Melnick JL, Rawls WE (1970). The early growth and development of infants with congenital rubella. Adv Teratol 4: 39–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deykin EY, MacMahon B (1979). Viral exposure and autism. Am J Epidemiol 109: 628–638.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Enbom M (2001). Human herpesvirus 6 in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis. APMIS 109: 401–411.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fombonne E (1989). Season of birth and childhood psychosis. Br J Psychiatry 155: 655–661.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fombonne E (1999). The epidemiology of autism: a review. Psychol Med 29: 769–786.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fombonne E, Chakrabarti S (2001). No evidence for a new variant of measles-mumps-rubella-induced autism. Pediatrics 108: E58.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fotheringham JB (1991). Autism: its primary psychological and neurological deficit. Can J Psychiatry 36: 686–692.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fujinami RS, Libbey JE (1999). Endogenous retroviruses: are they the cause of multiple sclerosis? Trends Microbiol 7: 263–264.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Geeraedts F, Wilczak N, van Binnendijk R, De Keyser J (2004). Search for morbillivirus proteins in multiple sclerosis brain tissue. Neuroreport 15: 27–32.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ghaziuddin M, Tsai LY, Eilers L, Ghaziuddin N (1992). Brief report: autism and herpes simplex encephalitis. J Autism Dev Disord 22: 107–113.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ghosh S, Armitage E, Wilson D, Minor PD, Afzal MA (2001). Detection of persistent measles virus infection in Crohn’s disease: current status of experimental work. Gut 48: 748–752.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gillberg C (1986). Onset at age 14 of a typical autistic syndrome. A case report of a girl with herpes simplex encephalitis. J Autism Dev Disord 16: 369–375.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gillberg C (1990). Do children with autism have March birthdays? Acta Psychiatr Scand 82: 152–156.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greer MK, Lyons-Crews M, Mauldin LB, Brown FR III (1989). A case study of the cognitive and behavioral deficits of temporal lobe damage in herpes simplex encephalitis. J Autism Dev Disord 19: 317–326.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gregg NM (1941). Congenital cataract following German measles in the mother. Trans Ophthalmol Soc Aust 3: 35–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gupta S, Rimland B, Shilling PD (1996). Pentoxifylline: brief review and rationale for its possible use in the treatment of autism. J Child Neurol 11: 501–504.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haase AT, Ventura P, Gibbs CJ Jr, Tourtellotte WW (1981). Measles virus nucleotide sequences: detection by hybridization in situ. Science 212: 672–675.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Halsey NA, Hyman SL (2001). Measles-mumps-rubella vaccine and autistic spectrum disorder: report from the New Challenges in Childhood Immunizations Conference convened in Oak Brook, Illinois, June 12—13, 2000. Pediatrics 107: E84.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hanisch U-K, Seto D, Quirion R (1993). Modulation of hippocampal acetylcholine release: a potent central action of interleukin-2. J Neurosci 13: 3368–3374.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hetzler BE, Griffin JL (1981). Infantile autism and the temporal lobe of the brain. J Autism Dev Disord 11: 317–330.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hornig M, Weissenbock H, Horscroft N, Lipkin WI (1999). An infection-based model of neurodevelopmental damage. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 96: 12102–12107.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ivarsson SA, Bjerre I, Vegfors P, Ahlfors K (1990). Autism as one of several disabilities in two children with congenital cytomegalovirus infection. Neuropediatrics 21: 102–103.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson RT (1982). Viral infections of the developing nervous system. In: Viral infections of the nervous system, 2nd edition. New York: Lippincott-Raven Publishers; pp 203–236.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jorgensen OS, Goldschmidt VV, Vestergaard BF (1982). Herpes simplex virus (HSV) antibodies in child psychiatric patients and normal children. Acta Psychiatr Scand 66: 42–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jyonouchi H, Sun S, Le H (2001). Proinflammatory and regulatory cytokine production associated with innate and adaptive immune responses in children with autism spectrum disorders and developmental regression. J Neuroimmunol 120: 170–179.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kawashima H, Mori T, Kashiwagi Y, Takekuma K, Hoshika A, Wakefield A (2000). Detection and sequencing of measles virus from peripheral mononuclear cells from patients with inflammatory bowel disease and autism. Dig Dis Sci 45: 723–729.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaye JA, del Mar Melero-Montes M, Jick H (2001). Mumps, measles, and rubella vaccine and the incidence of autism recorded by general practitioners: a time trend analysis. BMJ 322: 460–463.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kemper TL, Bauman M (1998). Neuropathology of infantile autism. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 57: 645–652.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim IJ, Beck HN, Lein PJ, Higgins D (2002). Interferon gamma induces retrograde dendritic retraction and inhibits synapse formation. J Neurosci 22: 4530–4539.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Knobloch H, Pasamanick B (1975). Some etiologic and prognostic factors in early infantile autism and psychosis. Pediatrics 55: 182–191.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Konstantareas MM, Hauser P, Lennox C, Homatidis S (1986). Season of birth in infantile autism. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 17: 53–65.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krause I, He XS, Gershwin ME, Shoenfeld Y (2002). Brief report: immune factors in autism: a critical review. J Autism Dev Disord 32: 337–345.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • LaFerla FM, Sugarman MC, Lane TE, Leissring MA (2000). Regional hypomyelination and dysplasia in transgenic mice with astrocyte-directed expression of interferon-gamma. J Mol Neurosci 15: 45–59.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Landau EC, Cicchetti DV, Klin A, Volkmar FR (1999). Season of birth in autism: a fiction revisited. J Autism Dev Disord 29: 385–393.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Legaspi RC, Gatmaitan B, Bailey EJ, Lerner AM (1980). Interferon in biopsy and autopsy specimens of brain. Its presence in herpes simplex virus encephalitis. Arch Neurol 37: 76–79.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lotter V (1966). Epidemiology of autistic conditions in young children. I: Prevalence. Soc Psychiatry 1: 124–137.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Madsen KM, Hviid A, Vestergaard M, Schendel D, Wohlfahrt J, Thorsen P, Olsen J, Melbye M (2002). A population-based study of measles, mumps, and rubella vaccination and autism. N Engl J Med 347: 1477–1482.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Makela A, Nuorti JP, Peltola H (2002). Neurologic disorders after measles-mumps-rubella vaccination. Pediatrics 110: 957–963.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Markowitz PI (1983). Autism in a child with congenital cytomegalovirus infection. J Autism Dev Disord 13: 249–253.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin WJ (1995). Stealth virus isolated from an autistic child. J Autism Dev Disord 25: 223–224.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Money J, Bobrow NA, Clarke FC (1971). Autism and autoimmune disease: a family study. J Autism Child Schizophr 1: 146–160.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muñoz-Ferńandez MA, Fresno M (1998). The role of tumour necrosis factor, interleukin 6, interferon-gamma and inducible nitric oxide synthase in the development and pathology of the nervous system. Prog Neurobiol 56: 307–340.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson KB (1991). Prenatal and perinatal factors in the etiology of autism. Pediatrics 87: 761–766.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oldstone MBA (1982). Immunopathology of persistent viral infections. Hosp Pract (Off Ed) 17: 61–72.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Orange JS, Biron CA (1996). An absolute and restricted requirement for IL-12 in natural killer cell IFN-γ production and antiviral defense. Studies of natural killer and T cell responses in contrasting viral infections. J Immunol 156: 1138–1142.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson PH (2002). Maternal infection: window on neuroimmune interactions in fetal brain development and mental illness. Curr Opin Neurobiol 12: 115–118.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peltola H, Patja A, Leinikki P, Valle M, Davidkin I, Paunio M (1998). No evidence for measles, mumps, and rubella vaccine-associated inflammatory bowel disease or autism in a 14-year prospective study. Lancet 351: 1327–1328.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pletnikov MV, Rubin SA, Vasudevan K, Moran TH, Carbone KM (1999). Developmental brain injury associated with abnormal play behavior in neonatally Borna disease virus-infected Lewis rats: a model of autism. Behav Brain Res 100: 43–50.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raymond GV, Bauman ML, Kemper TL (1996). Hippocampus in autism: a Golgi analysis. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 91: 117–119.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ring A, Barak Y, Ticher A, Ashkenazi I, Elizur A, Weizman A (1997). Evidence for an infectious etiology in autism. Pathophysiology 4: 91–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Risch N, Spiker D, Lotspeich L, Nouri N, Hinds D, Hallmayer J, Kalaydjieva L, McCague P, Dimiceli S, Pitts T, Nguyen L, Yang J, Harper C, Thorpe D, Vermeer S, Young H, Hebert J, Lin A, Ferguson J, Chiotti C, Wiese-Slater S, Rogers T, Salmon B, Nicholas P, Myers RM (1999). A genomic screen of autism: evidence for a multilocus etiology. Am J Hum Genet 65: 493–507.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ritvo ER, Freeman BJ, Scheibel AB, Duong T, Robinson H, Guthrie D, Ritvo A (1986). Lower Purkinje cell counts in the cerebella of four autistic subjects: initial findings of the UCLA-NSAC Autopsy Research Report. Am J Psychiatry 143: 862–866.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers T, Kalaydjieva L, Hallmayer J, Petersen PB, Nicholas P, Pingree C, McMahon WM, Spiker D, Lotspeich L, Kraemer H, McCague P, Dimiceli S, Nouri N, Peachy T, Yang J, Hinds D, Risch N, Myers RM (1999). Exclusion of linkage to the HLA region in ninety multiplex sibships with autism. J Autism DevDisord 29: 195–201.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberger PB (1975). Editorial: infectious disease and the immature brain. N Engl J Med 293: 39–40.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salazar-Mather TP, Hamilton TA, Biron CA (2000). A chemokine-to-cytokine-to-chemokine cascade critical in antiviral defense. J Clin Invest 105: 985–993.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sargent IL (1993). Maternal and fetal immune responses during pregnancy. Exp Clin Immunogenet 10: 85–102.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sells CJ, Carpenter RL, Ray CG (1975). Sequelae of central-nervous-system enterovirus infections. N Engl J Med 293: 1–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shi L, Fatemi SH, Sidwell RW, Patterson PH (2003). Maternal influenza infection causes marked behavioral and pharmacological changes in the offspring. J Neurosci 23: 297–302.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Singh VK, Jensen RL (2003). Elevated levels of measles antibodies in children with autism. Pediatr Neurol 28: 292–294.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singh VK, Lin SX, Newell E, Nelson C (2002). Abnormal measles-mumps-rubella antibodies and CNS autoimmunity in children with autism. J Biomed Sci 9: 359–364.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singh VK, Lin SX, Yang VC (1998). Serological association of measles virus and human herpesvirus-6 with brain autoantibodies in autism. Clin Immunol Immunopathol 89: 105–108.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sola P, Merelli E, Marasca R, Poggi M, Luppi M, Montorsi M, Torelli G (1993). Human herpesvirus 6 and multiple sclerosis: survey of anti-HHV-6 antibodies by immunofluorescence analysis and of viral sequences by polymerase chain reaction. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 56: 917–919.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steffenburg S, Gillberg C, Hellgren L, Andersson L, Gillberg IC, Jakobsson G, Bohman M (1989). A twin study of autism in Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 30: 405–416.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stubbs EG (1976). Autistic children exhibit undetectable hemagglutination-inhibition antibody titers despite previous rubella vaccination. J Autism Child Schizophr 6: 269–274.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stubbs EG (1978). Autistic symptoms in a child with congenital cytomegalovirus infection. J Autism Child Schizophr 8: 37–43.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stubbs G (1995). Interferonemia and autism. J Autism Dev Disord 25: 71–73.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sumaya CV, Myers LW, Ellison GW, Ench Y (1985). Increased prevalence and titer of Epstein-Barr virus antibodies in patients with multiple sclerosis. Ann Neurol 17: 371–377.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sweeten TL, Bowyer SL, Posey DJ, Halberstadt GM, McDougle CJ (2003a). Increased prevalence of familial autoimmunity in probands with pervasive developmental disorders. Pediatrics 112: e420.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sweeten TL, Posey DJ, McDougle CJ (2003b). High blood monocyte counts and neopterin levels in children with autistic disorder. Am J Psychiatry 160: 1691–1693.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sweeten TL, Posey DJ, McDougle CJ (2004a). Autistic disorder in three children with cytomegalovirus infection. J Autism Dev Disord 34: 583–586.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sweeten TL, Posey DJ, Shankar S, McDougle CJ (2004b). High nitric oxide production in autistic disorder: a possible role for interferon-γ. Biol Psychiatry 55: 434–437.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sweeten TL, Posey DJ, Shekhar A, McDougle CJ (2002). The amygdala and related structures in the pathophysiology of autism. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 71: 449–455.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tanoue Y, Oda S, Asano F, Kawashima K (1988). Epidemiology of infantile autism in southern Ibaraki, Japan: differences in prevalence in birth cohorts. J Autism Dev Disord 18: 155–166.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor B, Miller E, Farrington CP, Petropoulos MC, Favot-Mayaud I, Li J, Waight PA (1999). Autism and measles, mumps, and rubella vaccine: no epidemiological evidence for a causal association. Lancet 353: 2026–2029.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor B, Miller E, Lingam R, Andrews N, Simmons A, Stowe J (2002). Measles, mumps, and rubella vaccination and bowel problems or developmental regression in children with autism: population study. BMJ 324: 393–396.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thio CL, Thomas DL, Karacki P, Gao X, Marti D, Kaslow RA, Goedert JJ, Hilgartner M, Strathdee SA, Duggal P, O’Brien SJ, Astemborski J, Carrington M (2003). Comprehensive analysis of class I and class II HLA antigens and chronic hepatitis B virus infection. J Virol 77: 12083–12087.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ticher A, Ring A, Barak Y, Elizur A, Weizman A (1996). Circannual pattern of autistic births: reanalysis in three ethnic groups. Hum Biol 68: 585–592.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Torres AR, Maciulis A, Stubbs EG, Cutler A, Odell D (2002). The transmission disequilibrium test suggests that HLA-DR4 and DR13 are linked to autism spectrum disorder. Hum Immunol 63: 311–316.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Treffert DA (1970). Epidemiology of infantile autism. Arch Gen Psychiatry 22: 431–438.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tsunoda I, Fujinami RS (1999). Theiler’s murine encephalomyelitis virus. In: Persistent viral infections. Ahmed R, Chen I (eds). Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, pp 517–536.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tuchman RF, Rapin I (1997). Regression in pervasive developmental disorders: seizures and epileptiform electroencephalogram correlates. Pediatrics 99: 560–566.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Uhlmann V, Martin CM, Sheils O, Pilkington L, Silva I, Killalea A, Murch SB, Wakefield AJ, O’Leary JJ (2002). Potential viral pathogenic mechanism for new variant inflammatory bowel disease. Mol Pathol 55: 84–90.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Gent T, Heijnen CJ, Treffers PD (1997). Autism and the immune system. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 38: 337–349.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wakefield AJ, Montgomery SM (1999). Autism, viral infection and measles-mumps-rubella vaccination. Isr Med Assoc J 1: 183–187.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wakefield AJ, Murch SH, Anthony A, Linnell J, Casson DM, Malik M, Berelowitz M, Dhillon AP, Thomson MA, Harvey P, Valentine A, Davies SE, Walker-Smith JA (1998). Ileal-lymphoid-nodular hyperplasia, non-specific colitis, and pervasive developmental disorder in children. Lancet 351: 637–641.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wakefield AJ, Pittilo RM, Sim R, Cosby SL, Stephenson JR, Dhillon AP, Pounder RE (1993). Evidence of persistent measles virus infection in Crohn’s disease. J Med Virol 39: 345–353.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Warren RP, Cole P, Odell JD, Pingree CB, Warren WL, White E, Yonk J, Singh VK (1990). Detection of maternal antibodies in infantile autism. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 29: 873–877.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Warren RP, Odell JD, Warren WL, Burger RA, Maciulis A, Daniels WW, Torres AR (1996). Strong association of the third hypervariable region of HLA-DR β1 with autism. J Neuroimmunol 67: 97–102.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weinberg ED (1984). Pregnancy-associated depression of cell-mediated immunity. Rev Infect Dis 6: 814–831.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wong FS, Wen L (2003). The study of HLA class II and autoimmune diabetes. Curr Mol Med 3: 1–15.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wong K (2001). The search for autism’s roots. Nature 411: 882–884.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yeargin-Allsopp M, Rice C, Karapurkar T, Doernberg N, Boyle C, Murphy C (2003). Prevalence of autism in a US metropolitan area. JAMA 289: 49–55.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zalcman S, Green-Johnson JM, Murray L, Nance DM, Dyck D, Anisman H, Greenberg AH (1994). Cytokine-specific central monoamine alterations induced by interleukin-1, -2 and -6. Brain Res 643: 40–49.

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Affiliations

  1. Department of Neurology, University of Utah, 30 North 1900 East, 3R330 SOM, 84132-2305, Salt Lake City, UT, USA

    Jane E. Libbey, Thayne L. Sweeten & Robert S. Fujinami

  2. Department of Psychiatry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA

    William M. McMahon

Authors
  1. Jane E. Libbey
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Thayne L. Sweeten
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. William M. McMahon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Robert S. Fujinami
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Robert S. Fujinami.

Additional information

This work was supported by a grant from NICHD (U19 HD/DC25476 to WMM), which is part of the NICHD/NIDCD Collaborative Programs for Excellence in Autism. Additional support was provided by the Utah Autism Foundation.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Libbey, J.E., Sweeten, T.L., McMahon, W.M. et al. Autistic disorder and viral infections. Journal of NeuroVirology 11, 1–10 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1080/13550280590900553

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13550280590900553

Keywords

  • autism
  • immune response
  • virus
  • virus infection