Skip to main content
Log in

The impact of climate risk on firm performance and financing choices: An international comparison

  • Published:
Journal of International Business Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Increasingly adverse climatic conditions have created greater systematic risk for companies throughout the global economy. Few studies have directly examined the consequences of climate-related risk on financing choices by publicly listed firms across the globe. We attempt to do so using the Global Climate Risk Index compiled and published by Germanwatch (Kreft & Eckstein, 2014), which captures at the country level the extent of losses from extreme weather events. As expected, we find the likelihood of loss from major storms, flooding, heat waves, etc. to be associated with lower and more volatile earnings and cash flows. Consistent with policies that attempt to moderate such effects, we show that firms located in countries characterized by more severe weather are likelier to hold more cash so as to build financial slack and thereby organizational resilience to climatic threats. Those firms also tend to have less short-term debt but more long-term debt, and to be less likely to distribute cash dividends. In addition, we find that certain industries are less vulnerable to extreme weather and so face less climate-related risk. Our results are robust to using an instrumental variable approach, a propensity-score-matched sample, and path analysis, and remain unchanged when we consider an alternative measure of climate risk. Finally, our conclusions are invariant to the timing of financial crises that can affect different countries at different times.

Résumé

Des conditions climatiques de plus en plus défavorables ont créé un risque systématique plus important pour les entreprises partout dans l’économie globale. Peu d’études ont directement analysé les conséquences du risque climatique sur les choix de financement des firmes cotées en bourse dans le monde. Nous tentons de le faire en utilisant l’index du risque du climat global développé et publié par Germanwatch (Kreft et Eckstein, 2014) qui mesure à l’échelle d’un pays le niveau des pertes liées aux événements climatiques extrêmes. Comme cela était attendu, nous constatons que la probabilité de pertes liées à de fortes tempêtes, des inondations, des vagues de chaleur… est associée à des profits et des flux financiers moins élevés et plus volatils. En cohérence avec les politiques qui tentent de modérer ces effets, nous montrons que les firmes localisées dans des pays caractérisés par un climat plus sévère sont plus susceptibles de détenir plus de liquidités pour bâtir un système financier et ainsi une résilience organisationnelle aux menaces climatiques. Ces firmes tendent aussi à avoir moins de dettes à court terme, mais plus de dettes à long terme; elles sont moins susceptibles de distribuer des dividendes en espèces. Par ailleurs, nous constatons que certaines industries sont moins vulnérables aux conditions climatiques extrêmes et sont ainsi moins confrontées au risque lié au climat. Nos résultats sont robustes et reposent sur l’approche fondée sur des variables instrumentales, un échantillon compatible aux scores de propension et une analyse de trajectoires ; ils restent inchangés quand nous considérons une mesure alternative du risque climatique. Enfin, nos conclusions sont invariables par rapport au calendrier des crises financières qui peuvent affecter des pays différents à des moments différents.

Resumen

Las crecientes condiciones climáticas adversas han creado riesgos sistemáticos aún mayores para las empresas en toda la economía global. Pocos estudios han examinado directamente las consecuencias de los riesgos relacionados con el clima en las opciones financieras de empresas que cotizan en bolsa en todo el planeta. Intentamos hacerlo usando el Índice de Riesgos Climáticos Globales recopilado y publicado por Germanwatch (Kreft & Eckstein, 2014), el cual captura a nivel país el alcance de las pérdidas por eventos extremos de clima. Como se esperaba, encontramos que la probabilidad de pérdidas por tormentas mayores, inundaciones, olas de calor, etc., se asocia con menores y más volátiles ganancias y liquidez. Consistente con las políticas que intentan moderar estos efectos, mostramos que las empresas ubicadas en países caracterizados con condiciones de tiempo más severo son más propensas a conservar más dinero con el fin de construir músculo financiero y de este modo resiliencia organizacional a amenazas climáticas. Esas empresas también tienden a tener menos deuda de corto plazo, pero más deuda a largo plazo, y a tener menor probabilidades de distribuir dividendos en efectivo. Adicionalmente, encontramos que ciertas industrias son menos vulnerables al estado de tiempo más severo y por esto enfrentar menos riesgos asociados al clima. Nuestros resultados son robustos para usar un enfoque de variable instrumental, una muestra de puntaje de proclividad (propensity-score-matched), y un análisis de trayectoria, y permaneció sin cambios cuando consideramos una medida alternativa de riesgo climático. Finalmente, nuestras conclusiones no cambian con los momentos de crisis financieras que pueden afectar países diferentes en diferentes tiempos.

Resumo

Condições climáticas cada vez mais adversas criaram maior risco sistemático para as empresas em toda a economia global. Poucos estudos examinaram diretamente as consequências do risco relacionado ao clima em escolhas financeiras por empresas listadas em todo o mundo. Nós tentamos fazê-lo usando o Índice de Risco Climático Global compilado e publicado pela Germanwatch (Kreft & Eckstein, 2014), que capta a nível de país a extensão das perdas em eventos climáticos extremos. Como esperado, encontramos a probabilidade de perda em grandes tempestades, inundações, ondas de calor, etc., associadas a resultados e fluxos de caixa mais baixos e voláteis. Em consonância com políticas que tentam minimizar esses efeitos, mostramos que as empresas localizadas em países caracterizados por um clima mais severo têm mais probabilidade de manter mais dinheiro em caixa, de modo a estabelecer uma folga financeira e, assim, uma resiliência organizacional às ameaças climáticas. Essas empresas também tendem a ter menos dívidas de curto prazo, mas mais dívidas de longo prazo, e ser menos propensas a distribuir dividendos em dinheiro. Além disso, achamos que certas indústrias são menos vulneráveis a climas extremos e, portanto, enfrentam menos riscos relacionados ao clima. Nossos resultados são robustos ao usar uma abordagem com variáveis instrumentais, uma amostra compatibilizada com propensity score e análise de trajetória, e permanecem inalterados quando consideramos uma medida alternativa de risco climático. Finalmente, nossas conclusões não variam com o momento de crises financeiras que podem afetar diferentes países em momentos distintos.

概要

越来越不利的气候条件对全球经济中的公司带来了更大的系统风险。很少有研究去直接调查气候相关风险对全球各地的上市公司融资选择的影响。我们试图通过用德国观察(Kreft&Eckstein,2014)编制出版的全球气候风险指数来进行这项研究,在国家层面上去认识极端的天气事件所造成损失的程度。如预期的那样,我们发现了大风暴、洪水、热浪等所造成的损失与较低的和更易变的收益和现金流相关的可能。 与试图缓解这种影响的政策一致,我们显示,位于更恶劣天气国家的公司更有可能持有更多的现金,从而建立财务空隙及对气候威胁的组织韧性。这些公司也往往有较少的短期债务,但有较多的长期债务,而且不太可能有现金分红。另外,我们发现某些行业在极端天气下不那么脆弱,所以面临较少的气候相关风险。我们的结果对使用工具变量法、倾向评分匹配样本、及路径分析是稳健的,而且当我们考虑气候风险的替代量表时,它们保持不变。最后,我们的结论对在不同时期可能影响不同国家发生金融危机的时间是不变的。

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Albouy, D., Graf, W., Kellogg, R., & Wolff, H. 2013. Climate amenities, climate change, and American quality of life. Working Paper. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.

  • Andersen, T. 2001. Managing economic exposures of natural disasters: Exploring alternative financial risk management opportunities and instruments (p. 2001). Washington, DC: Natural Disasters Dialogue First Meeting.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, M., Bolton, P., & Samama, F. 2016. Hedging climate risk. Financial Analysts Journal, 72(3): 13–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Atta-Mensah, J. 2016. Poverty, climate risk and weather-indexed bonds. Journal of Mathematical Finance, 6(2): 275–292.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bals, C., Warner, K., & Butzengeiger, S. 2006. Insuring the uninsurable: Design options for a climate change funding mechanism. Climate Policy, 6(6): 637–647.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Banerjee, S., Dasgupta, S., & Kim, Y. 2008. Buyer–supplier relationships and the stakeholder theory of capital structure. Journal of Finance, 63(5): 2507–2552.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bansal, R., & Ochoa, M. 2012. Temperature, aggregate risk, and expected returns. Unpublished Working Paper No. 17575. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.

  • Bates, T., Kahle, K., & Stulz, R. 2009. Why do US firms hold so much more cash than they used to? Journal of Finance, 64(5): 1985–2021.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beatty, T., & Shimshack, J. 2010. The impact of climate change information: New evidence from stock market. Journal of Economic Analysis and Policy, 10(1): 1–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berkes, F., Colding, J., & Folke, C. (eds.). 2003. Navigating social–ecological systems: Building resilience for complexity and change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berkhout, F., Hertin, J., & Gann, D. M. 2006. Learning to adapt: Organizational adaptation to climate change impacts. Climatic Change, 78(1): 135–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burke, M., Hsiang, S. M., & Miguel, E. 2015. Global non-linear effect of temperature on economic production. Nature, 527(7577): 235–239.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burnell, P. 2012. Democracy, democratization and climate change: Complex relationship. Democratization, 19(5): 813–842.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cao, M., & Wei, J. 2005. Stock market returns: A note on temperature anomaly. Journal of Banking & Finance, 29(6): 1559–1573.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Challinor, A. J., Watson, J., Lobell, D. B., Howden, S. M., Smith, D. R., & Chhetri, N. 2014. A meta-analysis of crop yield under climate change and adaptation. Nature Climate Change, 4(4): 287–291.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chava, S. 2014. Environmental externalities and cost of capital. Management Science, 60(9): 2223–2247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clapp, C. S., Alfsen, K. H., Torvanger, A., & Lund, H. F. 2015. Influence of climate science on financial decisions. Nature Climate Change, 5(2): 84–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Covington, H., & Thamotheram. R. 2015. The case for forceful stewardship (part 1): The financial risk from global warming. Working Paper. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University and University of Oxford.

  • Custodio, C., Ferreira, M., & Laureano, L. 2013. Why are US firms using more short-term debt? Journal of Financial Economics, 108(1): 182–212.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dell, M., Jones, B., & Olken, B. A. 2009. Temperature and income: Reconciling new cross-sectional and panel estimates. American Economic Review, 99(2): 198–204.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dell, M., Jones, B., & Olken, B. A. 2014. What do we learn from the weather? The new climate-economy literature. Journal of Economic Literature, 52(3): 740–798.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deryugina, T. 2011. The role of transfer payments in mitigating shocks: Evidence from the impact of hurricanes. Working Paper. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois.

  • Diamond, D. 1991. Debt maturity structure and liquidity risk. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 106(3): 709–737.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dichev, I., & Tang, V. 2009. Earnings volatility and earnings predictability. Journal of Accounting and Economics, 47(1): 160–181.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Djankov, S., McLiesh, C., & Shleifer, A. 2007. Private credit in 129 countries. Journal of Financial Economics, 84(2): 299–329.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Edwards, S. 1992. Trade orientation, distortions, and growth in developing countries. Journal of Development Economics, 39(1): 31–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferguson, C. J. 2009. An effect size primer: A guide for clinicians and researchers. Professional Psychology, 40(5): 532–538.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fleming, J., Kirby, C., & Ostdiek, B. 2006. Information, trading, and volatility: Evidence from weather-sensitive markets. The Journal of Finance, 61(6): 2899–2930.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Francis, J., LaFond, R., Olsson, P. M., & Schipper, K. 2004. Costs of equity and earnings attributes. The Accounting Review, 79(4): 967–1010.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fuss, S. 2016. Climate economics: Substantial risk for financial assets. Nature Climate Change, 6(7): 659–660.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gallup, J., Sachs, J., & Mellinger, A. 1999. Geography and economic development. International Regional Science Review, 22(2): 179–232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garschagen, M., & Romero-Lankao, P. 2015. Exploring the relationships between urbanization trends and climate change vulnerability. Climate Change, 133(1): 37–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ghoul, S. E., Guedhami, O., & Kim, Y. 2017. Country-level institutions, firm value, and the role of corporate social responsibility initiatives. Journal of International Business Studies, 48(3): 360–385.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goodwin, J., & Wu, D. 2014. Is the effect of industry expertise on audit pricing an office-level or a partner-level phenomenon? Review of Accounting Studies, 19(4): 1532–1578.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hallegatte, S. 2008. An adaptive regional input-output model and its application to the assessment of the economic cost of Katrina. Risk Analysis, 28(3): 779–799.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hirshleifer, D., & Shumway, T. 2003. Good day sunshine: Stock returns and the weather. Journal of Finance, 58(3): 1009–1032.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffmann, V. H., Sprengel, D. C., Ziegler, A., Kolb, M., & Abegg, B. 2009. Determinants of corporate adaptation to climate change in winter tourism: An econometric analysis. Global Environmental Change, 19(2): 256–264.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howarth, E., & Hoffman, M. S. 1984. A multidimensional approach to the relationship between mood and weather. British Journal of Psychology, 75(1): 15–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hsiang, S. M. 2010. Temperatures and cyclones strongly associated with economic production in the Caribbean and Central America. Proceedings of the National academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107(35): 15367–15372.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hsiang, S. M., & Narita, D. 2012. Adaptation to cyclone risk: Evidence from the global cross-section. Climate Change Economics, 3(2): 1250011-1–1250011-28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huang, T., Wu, F., Yu, J., & Zhang, B. 2015. Political risk and dividend policy: Evidence from international political crises. Journal of International Business Studies, 46(5): 574–595.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • IPCC. 2007. Climate change 2007: Synthesis Report, Fourth assessment report (AR4) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

  • Itzkowitz, J. 2013. Customers and cash: How relationships affect suppliers’ cash holdings. Journal of Corporate Finance, 19, 159–180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jahn, M. 2013. Economics of extreme weather events in cities: Terminology and regional impact models. HWWI research Paper 143, Hamburg Institute of International Economics.

  • Kamstra, M. J., Kramer, L. A., & Levi, M. D. 2003. Winterblues: A SAD stock market cycle. American Economic Review, 93(1): 324–343.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kingsley, A. F., & Graham, B. A. 2017. The effects of information voids on capital flows in emerging markets. Journal of International Business Studies, 48(3): 324–343.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Konar, S., & Cohen, M. A. 2001. Does the market value environmental performance? The Review of Economics and Statistics, 83(2): 281–289.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kowalewski, J., & Ujeyl, G. 2012. Estimating direct and indirect damages from storm surges: The case of Wilhelmsburg/Hamburg. In F. Klijn & T. Schweckendiek (Eds.), Comprehensive flood risk management: Research for policy and practice. Delft: CRC Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kreft, S., & Eckstein, D. 2014. Global climate risk index 2014. Bonn: Germanwatch.

    Google Scholar 

  • La Porta, R., Lopez-de-Silanes, F., Shleifer, A., & Vishny, R. W. 1998. Law and finance. Journal of Political Economy, 106(6): 1113–1155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Larkin, K. 2013. Brand perception, cash flow stability, and financial policy. Journal of Financial Economics, 110(1): 232–253.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Le, S., & Kroll, M. 2017. CEO international experience: Effects on strategic change and firm performance. Journal of International Business Studies, 48(5): 573–595.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Linnenluecke, M. K., & Griffiths, A. 2010. Beyond adaption: Resilience for business in light of climate change and weather extremes. Business & Society, 49(3): 477–511.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Linnenluecke, M. K., Griffiths, A., & Winn, M. I. 2008. Organizational adaptation and resilience to extreme weather events. Paper presented at the Annual Meetings of the Academy of Management, Anaheim, CA (Recipient of the Carolyn Dexter Best International Paper Award)

  • Lipe, R. 1990. The relation between stock returns and accounting earnings given alternative information. The Accounting Review, 65(1): 49–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marano, V., Tashman, P., & Kostova, T. 2017. Escaping the iron cage: Liabilities of origin and CSR reporting of emerging market multinational enterprises. Journal of International Business Studies, 48(3): 386–408.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Masulis, R., & Mobbs, S. 2014. Independent director incentives: Where do talented directors spend their limited time and energy? Journal of Financial Economics, 111(2): 406–429.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Matsumura, E., Prakash, R., & Vera-Munoz, S. 2014. Firm-value effects of carbon emissions and carbon disclosures. The Accounting Review, 89(2): 695–724.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCarthy, J., Canziani, O., Leary, N., Dokken, D., & White, K. 2001. Climate change 2001: Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability: Contribution of Working Group II to the third assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, K., Witteloostuijn, A., & Beugelsdijk, S. 2017. What’s in a p? Reassessing best practices for conducting and reporting hypothesis-testing research. Journal of International Business Studies, 48(5): 535–551.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Minton, B., & Schrand, C. 1999. The impact of cash flow volatility on discretionary investment and the costs of debt and equity financing. Journal of Financial Economics, 54(3): 423–460.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER). 2008. The NBER’s recession dating procedure. National Bureau of Economic Research. http://www.nber.org/cycles/jan08bcdc_memo.html.

  • Nordhaus, W. D. 2006. Geography and macroeconomics: New data and new findings. Proceedings of the National academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 103(10): 3510–3517.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Novy-Marx, R. 2014. Predicting anomaly performance with politics, the weather, global warming, sunspots, and the stars. Journal of Financial Economics, 112(2): 137–146.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Opler, T., Pinkowitz, L., Stulz, R., & Williamson, R. 1999. The determinants and implications of corporate cash holdings. Journal of Financial Economics, 52(1): 3–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pal, J. S., & Eltahir, E. A. B. 2016. Future temperature in southwest Asia projected to exceed a threshold for human adaptability. Nature Climate Change, 6(2): 197–200.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reisch, M. 2005. Katrina’s impact: In hurricane’s aftermath, chemical firms face higher costs and lower earnings. Chemical & Engineering News, 83(38): 8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rivera, C., & Wamsler, C. 2014. Integrating climate change adaptation, disaster risk reduction and urban planning: A review of Nicaraguan policies and regulations. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 7: 78–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ronen, J., & Sadan, S. 1981. Smoothing income numbers: objectives, means, and implications. Boston, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rountree, B., Weston, J., & Allayannis, G. 2008. Do investors value smooth performance? Journal of Financial Economics, 90(3): 237–251.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • SASB (Sustainability Accounting Standards Board). 2016. Climate risk technical bulletin. https://www.eenews.net/assets/2016/10/20/document_cw_01.pdf.

  • Stulz, R. 1990. Managerial discretion and optimal financing policies. Journal of Financial Economics, 26(1): 3–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tschakert, P., & Dietrich, K. 2010. Anticipatory learning for climate change adaptation and resilience. Ecology and Society, 15(2): 11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tu, D. 2014. Do the stock markets price climate change risks? Working Paper. Paris: HEC. http://www.vernimmen.net/ftp/DoStockMktsPriceClimateChangeRisks_Danni_TU.pdf.

  • United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR). 2009. UNISDR Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction, Geneva. http://www.unisdr.org/_les/7817UNISDRTerminologyEnglish.pdf.

  • Vogus, T., & Sutcliffe, K. 2007. Organizational resilience: Towards a theory and research agenda, 2007 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, Montreal, Quebec, pp. 3418–3422.

  • Wang, J. 2012. Do firms’ relationships with principal customers/suppliers affect shareholders’ income? Journal of Corporate Finance, 18: 860–878.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilbanks, T. J., Romero Lankao, P., Bao, M., Berkhout, F., Cairncross, S., Ceron, J.-P., et al., 2007. Industry, settlement and society. Climate Change, 357–390.

  • Woods, D. 2006. Essential characteristics of resilience. In E. Hollnagel, D. D. Woods, & N. Leveson (Eds.), Resilience engineering: Concepts and precepts (pp. 21–34). Burlington, VT: Ashgate.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, S. 1934. The method of path coefficients. Annals of Mathematical Statistics, 5: 161–215.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yang, D. 2008. Coping with disaster: The impact of hurricanes on international financial flows, 1970–2002. The BE Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy, 8(1): 1–43.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank the valuable comments from the Editor-in-Chief Alain Verbeke, Editor Gary Biddle, the three anonymous reviewers, and the participants of workshop at the University of Kentucky and the Mid-year Conference of International Accounting Section of American Accounting Association. Chong Wang acknowledges the financial support from Hong Kong Polytechnic University Start-up Fund and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Fund # 71332008).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Henry He Huang.

Additional information

Accepted by Gary Biddle, Area Editor, 14 October 2017. This article has been with the authors for three revisions.

Appendix

Appendix

See Table 10.

Table 10 Variable definitions

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Huang, H.H., Kerstein, J. & Wang, C. The impact of climate risk on firm performance and financing choices: An international comparison. J Int Bus Stud 49, 633–656 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41267-017-0125-5

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41267-017-0125-5

Keywords

Navigation