Abstract
This article presents a typology of Muslim councils. The typology identifies two central ways in which these bodies vary: how they are formed (by the government or by the Muslim community) and who can be a member (universal or restricted by sect, ethnicity or national origin). The central claim in this article is that the nature of Muslim council present in a country is indicative of the extent to which Muslims will be incorporated into the policy-making process. Councils that condition representation on membership in a given sect or ethnic heritage are overall less likely to be incorporated in the policy-making process. Compared with those councils created by the Muslim community and elevated to official status, councils created by the state are also less likely to be a part of the policy-making process. In addition, when state-created councils are consulted, it is likely to be perfunctory rather than a meaningful discussion. In order to provide an empirical test to see what relationship, if any, exists between policy outcomes and the type of council in a given country, I look at the process of creating Muslim dress policy in Austria, France and the Netherlands.
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Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Ron Hassner, Jonah Levy, Steve Vogel, Nick Ziegler, and three anonymous reviewers for their feedback, comments and advice.
