Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is an FDA-approved modality for the treatment of early-stage disease and palliation of late-stage disease. Pre-clinical studies using mouse models and clinical studies in patients have demonstrated that PDT is capable of influencing the immune system. The effect of PDT on the generation of anti-tumor immunity is regimen-dependent and is tightly linked to the degree and nature of inflammation induced by PDT. However, the precise mechanism underlying PDT-regulated adaptive anti-tumor immunity remains unclear. This review will focus on the current knowledge of immune regulation by PDT.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
M. Korbelik, G. Krosl, J. Krosl and G. J. Dougherty, The role of host lymphoid populations in the response of mouse EMT6 tumor to photodynamic therapy, Cancer Res., 1996, 56, 5647–5652.
M. Korbelik and I. Cecic, Contribution of myeloid and lymphoid host cells to the curative outcome of mouse sarcoma treatment by photodynamic therapy, Cancer Lett., 1999, 137, 91–98.
G. Dragieva, J. Hafner, R. Dummer, P. Schmid-Grendelmeier, M. Roos, B. M. Prinz, G. Burg, U. Binswanger and W. Kempf, Topical photodynamic therapy in the treatment of actinic keratoses and Bowen’s disease in transplant recipients, Transplantation, 2004, 77, 115–121.
E. S. Abdel-Hady, P. Martin-Hirsch, M. Duggan-Keen, P. L. Stern, J. V. Moore, G. Corbitt, H. C. Kitchener and I. N. Hampson, Immunological and viral factors associated with the response of vulval intraepithelial neoplasia to photodynamic therapy, Cancer Res., 2001, 61, 192–196.
M. J. Maeurer, S. M. Gollin, W. J. Storkus, W. Swaney, J. Karbach, D. Martin, C. Castelli, R. Salter, A. Knuth and M. T. Lotze, Tumor escape from immune recognition: loss of HLA-A2 melanoma cell surface expression is associated with a complex rearrangement of the short arm of chromosome 6, Clin. Cancer Res., 1996, 2, 641–652.
G. Canti, D. Lattuada, A. Nicolin, P. Taroni, G. Valentini and R. Cubeddu, Immunopharmacology studies on photosensitizers used in photodynamic therapy (PDT), Proc. SPIE Photodyn. Ther. Cancer, 1994, 2078, 268–275.
M. Korbelik and G. J. Dougherty, Photodynamic therapy-mediated immune response against subcutaneous mouse tumors, Cancer Res., 1999, 59, 1941–1946.
E. Kabingu, A.R. Oseroff, G. E. Wilding and S.O. Gollnick, Enhanced systemic immune reactivity to a basal cell carcinoma associated antigen following photodynamic therapy, Clin. Cancer Res., 2009, 15, 4460–4466.
P. S. Thong, K. W. Ong, N. S. Goh, K. W. Kho, V. Manivasager, R. Bhuvaneswari, M. Olivo and K. C. Soo, Photodynamic-therapyactivated immune response against distant untreated tumours in recurrent angiosarcoma, Lancet Oncol., 2007, 8, 950–952.
D. Preise, R. Oren, I. Glinert, V. Kalchenko, S. Jung, A. Scherz and Y. Salomon, Systemic antitumor protection by vascular-targeted photodynamic therapy involves cellular and humoral immunity, Cancer Immunol. Immunother., 2008, 58, 71–84.
G. Krosl, M. Korbelik, J. Krosl and G. J. Dougherty, Potentiation of photodynamic therapy-elicited antitumor response by localized treatment with granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, Cancer Res., 1996, 56, 3281–3286.
B. W. Henderson, S. O. Gollnick, J. W. Snyder, T. M. Busch, P. C. Kousis, R. T. Cheney and J. Morgan, Choice of oxygen-conserving treatment regimen determines the inflammatory response and outcome of photodynamic therapy of tumors, Cancer Res., 2004, 64, 2120–2126.
S. Evans, W. Matthews, R. Perry, D. Fraker, J. Norton and H. I. Pass, Effect of photodynamic therapy on tumor necrosis factor production by murine macrophages, J. Natl. Cancer Inst., 1990, 82, 34–39.
G. Kick, G. Messer, A. Goetz, G. Plewig and P. Kind, Photodynamic therapy induces expression of interleukin 6 by activation of AP-1 but not NF-kB DNA binding, Cancer Res., 1995, 55, 2373–2379.
S. O. Gollnick, X. Liu, B. Owczarczak, D. A. Musser and B. W. Henderson, Altered expression of interleukin 6 and interleukin 10 as a result of photodynamic therapy in vivo, Cancer Res., 1997, 57, 3904–3909.
S. O. Gollnick, S. E. Evans, H. Baumann, B. Owczarczak, P. Maier, L. Vaughan, W. C. Wang, E. Unger and B. W. Henderson, Role of cytokines in photodynamic therapy-induced local and systemic inflammation, Br. J. Cancer, 2003, 88, 1772–1779.
M. Korbelik, Induction of tumor immunity by photodynamic therapy, J. Clin. Laser Med. Surg., 1996, 14, 329–334.
P. C. Kousis, B. W. Henderson, P. G. Maier and S. O. Gollnick, Photodynamic therapy (PDT) enhancement of anti-tumor immunity is regulated by neutrophils, Cancer Res., 2007, 67, 10501–10510.
W. J. de Vree, M. C. Essers, H. S. De Bruijn, W. M. Star, J. F. Koster and W. Sluiter, Evidence for an important role of neutrophils in the efficacy of photodynamic therapy in vivo, Cancer Res., 1996, 56, 2908–2911.
I. Cecic, C. S. Parkins and M. Korbelik, Induction of systemic neutrophil response in mice by photodynamic therapy of solid tumors, Photochem. Photobiol., 2001, 74, 712–720.
U. O. Nseyo, R. K. Whalen, M. R. Duncan, B. Berman and S. L. Lundahl, Urinary cytokines following photodynamic therapy for bladder cancer, Urology, 1990, 36, 167–171.
P. Ziolkowski, K. Symonowicz, J. Milach and T. Szkudlarek, In vivo tumor necrosis factor-alpha induction following chlorin e6- photodynamic therapy in Buffalo rats, Neoplasma, 1996, 44, 192–196.
W. J. de Vree, M. C. Essers, J. F. Koster and W. Sluiter, Role of interleukin 1 and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor in photofrinbased phtodynamic therapy of rat rhabdomyosarcoma tumors, Cancer Res., 1997, 57, 2555–2558.
I. Cecic and M. Korbelik, Mediators of peripheral blood neutrophilia induced by photodynamic therapy of solid tumors, Cancer Lett., 2002, 183, 43–51.
S. S. Yom, T. M. Busch, J. S. Friedberg, E. P. Wileyto, D. Smith, E. Glatstein and S. M. Hahn, Elevated serum cytokine levels in mesothelioma patients who have undergone pleurectomy or extrapleural pneumonectomy and adjuvant intraoperative photodynamic therapy, Photochem. Photobiol., 2003, 78, 75–81.
I. Cecic, K. Serrano, M. Gyongyossy-Issa and M. Korbelik, Characteristics of complement activation in mice bearing Lewis lung carcinomas treated by photodynamic therapy, Cancer Lett., 2005, 225, 215–223.
B. Stott and M. Korbelik, Activation of complement C3, C5, and C9 genes in tumors treated by photodynamic therapy, Cancer Immunol. Immunother., 2006, 56, 649–658.
I. Cecic, J. Sun and M. Korbelik, Role of complement anaphylatoxin C3a in photodynamic therapy-elicited engagement of host neutrophils and other immune cells, Photochem. Photobiol., 2006, 82, 558–562.
A. Jalili, M. Makowski, T. Switaj, D. Nowis, G. M. Wilczynski, E. Wilczek, M. Chorazy-Massalska, A. Radzikowska, W. Maslinski, L. Bialy, J. Sienko, A. Sieron, M. Adamek, G. Basak, P. Mroz, I. W. Krasnodebski, M. Jakobisiak and J. Golab, Effective photoimmunotherapy of murine colon carcinoma induced by the combination of photodynamic therapy and dendritic cells, Clin. Cancer Res., 2004, 10, 4498–4508.
S. O. Gollnick, B. Owczarczak and P. Maier, Photodynamic therapy and anti-tumor immunity, Lasers Surg. Med., 2006, 38, 509–515.
B. W. Sur, P. Nguyen, C. H. Sun, B. J. Tromberg and E. L. Nelson, Immunophototherapy using PDT combined with rapid intratumoral dendritic cell injection, Photochem. Photobiol., 2008, 84, 1257–1264.
S. O. Gollnick, L. A. Vaughan and B. W. Henderson, Generation of effective anti-tumor vaccines using photodynamic therapy, CancerRes., 2002, 62, 1604–1608.
T. Kushibiki, T. Tajiri, Y. Tomioka and K. Awazu, Photodynamic therapy induces interleukin secretion from dendritic cells, Int. J. Clin. Exp. Med., 2010, 3, 110–114.
A. P. Castano, P. Mroz and M. R. Hamblin, Photodynamic therapy and anti-tumour immunity, Nat. Rev. Cancer, 2006, 6, 535–545.
G. Canti, A. De Simone and M. Korbelik, Photodynamic therapy and the immune system in experimental oncology, Photochem. Photobiol. Sci., 2002, 1, 79–80.
M. Korbelik, J. Sun and I. Cecic, Photodynamic therapy-induced cell surface expression and release of heat shock proteins: relevance for tumor response, Cancer Res., 2005, 65, 1018–1026.
M. Korbelik, B. Stott and J. Sun, Photodynamic therapy-generated vaccines: relevance of tumour cell death expression, Br. J. Cancer, 2007, 97, 1381–1387.
P. Matzinger, The danger model: a renewed sense of self, Science, 2002, 296, 301–305.
A. Rubartelli and M. T. Lotze, Inside, outside, upside down: damageassociated molecular-pattern molecules (DAMPs) and redox, Trends Immunol., 2007, 28, 429–436.
R. M. Vabulas, H. Wagner and H. Schild, Heat shock proteins as ligands of toll-like receptors, Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol., 2002, 270, 169–184.
C. J. Gomer, S. W. Ryter, A. Ferrairo, N. Ryffel, A. Woodard and A. M. R. Fisher, Photodynamic therapy-mediated oxidative stress can induce expression of heat shock proteins, Cancer Res, 1996, 56, 2355–2360.
S. O. Gollnick, E. Kabingu, P. C. Kousis and B. W. Henderson, Stimulation of the host immune response by photodynamic therapy (PDT), Proc. SPIE, 2004, 5319, 60–71.
M. Korbelik, Complement upregulation in photodynamic therapytreated tumors: Role of Toll-like receptor pathway and NFkappaB, Cancer Lett., 2009, 281, 232–238.
M. Korbelik and J. Sun, Photodynamic therapy-generated vaccine for cancer therapy, Cancer Immunol. Immunother., 2005, 55, 900–909.
C. Nathan, Neutrophils and immunity: challenges and opportunities, Nat. Rev. Immunol., 2006, 6, 173–182.
K. P. J. M. van Gisbergen, M. Sanchez-Hernandez, T. B. H. Geijtenbeek and Y. van Kooyk, Neutrophils mediate immune modulation of dendritic cells through glycosylation-dependent interactions between Mac-1 and DC-SIGN, J. Exp. Med., 2005, 201, 1281–1292.
S. Bennouna and E. Y. Denkers, Microbial antigen triggers rapid mobilization of TNF-alpha to the surface of mouse neutrophils transforming them into inducers of high-level dendritic cell TNF-alpha production, J. Immunol., 2005, 174, 4845–4851.
F. Ethuin, B. Gerard, J. E. Benna, A. Boutten, M. A. Gougereot-Pocidalo, L. Jacob and S. Chollet-Martin, Human neutrophils produce interferon gamma upon stimulation by interleukin-12, Lab. Invest., 2004, 84, 1363–1371.
A. L. Marzo, V. Vezys, K. D. Klonowski, S.-J. Lee, G. Muralimohan, M. Moore, D. F. Tough and L. Lefrançois, Fully functional memory CD8 T cells in the absence of CD4 T cells, J. Immunol., 2004, 173, 969–975.
J. Wang, M. Santosuosso, P. Ngai, A. Zganiacz and Z. Xing, Activation of CD8 T cells by mycobacterial vaccination protects against pulmonary tuberculosis in the absence of CD4 T cells, J. Immunol., 2004, 173, 4590–4597.
F. Castellino and R. N. Germain, Cooperation between CD4+ and CD8+ T cells: when, where, and how, Annu. Rev. Immunol., 2006, 24, 519–540.
E. Kabingu, L. Vaughan, B. Owczarczak, K. D. Ramsey and S. O. Gollnick, CD8+ T cell-mediated control of distant tumours following local photodynamic therapy is independent of CD4+ T cells and dependent on natural killer cells, Br. J. Cancer, 2007, 96, 1839–1848.
T. Yamaguchi and S. Sakaguchi, Regulatory T cells in immune surveillance and treatment of cancer, Semin. Cancer Biol., 2006, 16, 115–123.
M. Beyer and J. L. Schultze, Regulatory T cells in cancer, Blood, 2006, 108, 804–811.
A. P. Castano, P. Mroz, M. X. Wu and M. R. Hamblin, Photodynamic therapy plus low-dose cyclophosphamide generates antitumor immunity in a mouse model, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 2008, 105, 5495–5500.
D. I. Gabrilovich and S. Nagaraj, Myeloid-derived suppressor cells as regulators of the immune system, Nat. Rev. Immunol., 2009, 9, 162–174.
D. W. Hunt and J. G. Levy, Immunomodulatory aspects of photodynamic therapy, Expert Opin. Invest. Drugs, 1998, 7, 57–64.
B. W. Henderson, and S. O. Gollnick, Mechanistic principles of photodynamic therapy, in Biomedical Photonics Handbook, ed. T. Vo-Dinh, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2003, chapter 37, pp. 1–27.
Y. J. Matthews and D. L. Damian, Topical photodynamic therapy is immunosuppressive in humans, Br. J. Dermatol., 2010, 162, 637–641.
N. Yusuf, S. K. Katiyar and C. A. Elmets, The immunosuppressive effects of phthalocyanine photodynamic therapy in mice are mediated by CD4+ and CD8+ T cells and can be adoptively transferred to naive recipients, Photochem. Photobiol., 2008, 84, 366–370.
J. S. Friedberg, R. Mick, J. P. Stevenson, T. Zhu, T. M. Busch, D. Shin, D. Smith, M. Culligan, A. Dimofte, E. Glatstein and S.M. Hahn, Phase II trial of pleural photodynamic therapy and surgery for patients with non-small-cell lung cancer with pleural spread, J. Clin. Oncol., 2004, 22, 2192–2201.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
This article is published as part of a themed issue on immunological aspects and drug delivery technologies in PDT.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Brackett, C.M., Gollnick, S.O. Photodynamic therapy enhancement of anti-tumor immunity. Photochem Photobiol Sci 10, 649–652 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1039/c0pp00354a
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/c0pp00354a