Abstract
Cilia and flagella are highly conserved organelles that have diverse roles in cell motility and sensing extracellular signals. Motility defects in cilia and flagella often result in primary ciliary dyskinesia. However, the mechanisms underlying cilia formation and function, and in particular the cytoplasmic assembly of dyneins that power ciliary motility, are only poorly understood. Here we report a new gene, kintoun (ktu), involved in this cytoplasmic process. This gene was first identified in a medaka mutant, and found to be mutated in primary ciliary dyskinesia patients from two affected families as well as in the pf13 mutant of Chlamydomonas. In the absence of Ktu/PF13, both outer and inner dynein arms are missing or defective in the axoneme, leading to a loss of motility. Biochemical and immunohistochemical studies show that Ktu/PF13 is one of the long-sought proteins involved in pre-assembly of dynein arm complexes in the cytoplasm before intraflagellar transport loads them for the ciliary compartment.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Okada, Y. et al. Mechanism of nodal flow: A conserved symmetry breaking event in left-right axis determination. Cell 121, 633–644 (2005)
Fliegauf, M., Benzing, T. & Omran, H. When cilia go bad: cilia defects and ciliopathies. Nature Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 8, 880–893 (2007)
Wilson, P. D. Polycystic kidney disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 350, 151–164 (2004)
Zariwala, M. A., Knowles, M. R. & Omran, H. Genetic defects in ciliary structure and function. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 69, 423–450 (2007)
Olbrich, H. et al. Mutations in DNAH5 cause primary ciliary dyskinesia and randomization of left-right asymmetry. Nature Genet. 30, 143–144 (2002)
Pennarun, G. et al. Loss-of-function mutations in a human gene related to Chlamydomonas reinhardtii dynein IC78 result in primary ciliary dyskinesia. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 65, 1508–1519 (1999)
Bartoloni, L. et al. Mutations in the DNAH11 (axonemal heavy chain dynein type 11) gene cause one form of situs inversus totalis and most likely primary ciliary dyskinesia. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 99, 10282–10286 (2002)
Budny, B. et al. A novel X-linked recessive mental retardation syndrome comprising macrocephaly and ciliary dysfunction is allelic to oral-facial-digital type I syndrome. Hum. Genet. 120, 171–178 (2006)
van Dorp, D. B., Wright, A. F., Carothers, A. D. & Bleeker-Wagemakers, E. M. A family with RP3 type of X-linked retinitis pigmentosa: an association with ciliary abnormalities. Hum. Genet. 88, 331–334 (1992)
Duriez, B. et al. A common variant in combination with a nonsense mutation in a member of the thioredoxin family causes primary ciliary dyskinesia. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 104, 3336–3341 (2007)
Wittbrodt, J., Shima, A. & Schartl, M. Medaka–a model organism from the far East. Nature Rev. Genet. 3, 53–64 (2002)
Kasahara, M. et al. The medaka draft genome and insights into vertebrate genome evolution. Nature 447, 714–719 (2007)
Furutani-Seiki, M. et al. A systematic genome-wide screen for mutations affecting organogenesis in Medaka, Oryzias latipes. Mech. Dev. 121, 647–658 (2004)
Yokoi, H. et al. Mutant analyses reveal different functions of fgfr1 in medaka and zebrafish despite conserved ligand–receptor relationships. Dev. Biol. 304, 326–337 (2007)
Hojo, M. et al. Right-elevated expression of charon is regulated by fluid flow in medaka Kupffer’s vesicle. Dev. Growth Differ. 49, 395–405 (2007)
Huang, B., Piperno, G. & Luck, D. J. Paralyzed flagella mutants of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii defective for axonemal doublet microtubule arms. J. Biol. Chem. 254, 3091–3099 (1979)
Fowkes, M. E. & Mitchell, D. R. The role of preassembled cytoplasmic complexes in assembly of flagellar dynein subunits. Mol. Biol. Cell 9, 2337–2347 (1998)
Essner, J. J. et al. Kupffer’s vesicle is a ciliated organ of asymmetry in the zebrafish embryo that initiates left-right development of the brain, heart and gut. Development 132, 1247–1260 (2005)
Kramer-Zucker, A. G. et al. Cilia-driven fluid flow in the zebrafish pronephros, brain and Kupffer’s vesicle is required for normal organogenesis. Development 132, 1907–1921 (2005)
Gonzales, F. A., Zanchin, N. I., Luz, J. S. & Oliveira, C. C. Characterization of Saccharomyces cerevisiae Nop17p, a novel Nop58p-interacting protein that is involved in Pre-rRNA processing. J. Mol. Biol. 346, 437–455 (2005)
Zhao, R. et al. Molecular chaperone Hsp90 stabilizes Pih1/Nop17 to maintain R2TP complex activity that regulates snoRNA accumulation. J. Cell Biol. 180, 563–578 (2008)
Boulon, S. et al. The Hsp90 chaperone controls the biogenesis of L7Ae RNPs through conserved machinery. J. Cell Biol. 180, 579–595 (2008)
Mochizuki, E. et al. Fish mesonephric model of polycystic kidney disease in medaka (Oryzias latipes) pc mutant. Kidney Int. 68, 23–34 (2005)
Fliegauf, M. et al. Mislocalization of DNAH5 and DNAH9 in respiratory cells from patients with primary ciliary dyskinesia. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 171, 1343–1349 (2005)
Kamiya, R. Functional diversity of axonemal dyneins as studied in Chlamydomonas mutants. Int. Rev. Cytol. 219, 115–155 (2002)
LeDizet, M. & Piperno, G. The light chain p28 associates with a subset of inner dynein arm heavy chains in Chlamydomonas axonemes. Mol. Biol. Cell 6, 697–711 (1995)
Hornef, N. et al. DNAH5 mutations are a common cause of primary ciliary dyskinesia with outer dynein arm defects. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 174, 120–126 (2006)
Tam, L. W. & Lefebvre, P. A. Cloning of flagellar genes in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii by DNA insertional mutagenesis. Genetics 135, 375–384 (1993)
Yamamoto, R., Yanagisawa, H. A., Yagi, T. & Kamiya, R. A novel subunit of axonemal dynein conserved among lower and higher eukaryotes. FEBS Lett. 580, 6357–6360 (2006)
Ahmed, N. T. & Mitchell, D. R. ODA16p, a Chlamydomonas flagellar protein needed for dynein assembly. Mol. Biol. Cell 16, 5004–5012 (2005)
Merchant, S. S. et al. The Chlamydomonas genome reveals the evolution of key animal and plant functions. Science 318, 245–250 (2007)
Ahmed, T. N. et al. ODA16 aids axonemal outer row dynein assembly through an interaction with the intraflagellar transport machinery. J. Cell Biol. 183, 313–322 (2008)
Young, J. C., Barral, J. M. & Ulrich Hartl, F. More than folding: localized functions of cytosolic chaperones. Trends Biochem. Sci. 28, 541–547 (2003)
Mitchell, B. F. et al. ATP production in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii flagella by glycolytic enzymes. Mol. Biol. Cell 16, 4509–4518 (2005)
Hirokawa, N. & Takemura, R. Molecular motors and mechanisms of directional transport in neurons. Nature Rev. Neurosci. 6, 201–214 (2005)
Rosenbaum, J. L. & Witman, G. B. Intraflagellar transport. Nature Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 3, 813–825 (2002)
Hagiwara, H., Shibasaki, S. & Ohwada, N. Abnormal cilia in human uterine tube epithelium. J. Clin. Electron Microsc. 23, 493–503 (1990)
Kamiya, R. Mutations at twelve independent loci result in absence of outer dynein arms in Chylamydomonas reinhardtii . J. Cell Biol. 107, 2253–2258 (1988)
Mitchell, D. R. & Sale, W. S. Characterization of a Chlamydomonas insertional mutant that disrupts flagellar central pair microtubule-associated structures. J. Cell Biol. 144, 293–304 (1999)
Mastronarde, D. N. et al. Arrangement of inner dynein arms in wild-type and mutant flagella of Chlamydomonas . J. Cell Biol. 118, 1145–1162 (1992)
Hou, Y. et al. Functional analysis of an individual IFT protein: IFT46 is required for transport of outer dynein arms into flagella. J. Cell Biol. 176, 653–665 (2007)
Mitchell, D. R. & Rosenbaum, J. L. Protein–protein interactions in the 18S ATPase of Chlamydomonas outer dynein arms. Cell Motil. Cytoskeleton 6, 510–520 (1986)
King, S. M., Otter, T. & Witman, G. B. Characterization of monoclonal antibodies against Chlamydomonas flagellar dyneins by high-resolution protein blotting. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 82, 4717–4721 (1985)
DiBella, L. M. et al. Differential light chain assembly influences outer arm dynein motor function. Mol. Biol. Cell 16, 5661–5674 (2005)
Yang, P. & Sale, W. S. The Mr 140,000 intermediate chain of Chlamydomonas flagellar inner arm dynein is a WD-repeat protein implicated in dynein arm anchoring. Mol. Biol. Cell 9, 3335–3349 (1998)
Yagi, T. et al. An axonemal dynein particularly important for flagellar movement at high viscosity. Implications from a new Chlamydomonas mutant deficient in the dynein heavy chain gene DHC9. J. Biol. Chem. 280, 41412–41420 (2005)
Chen, X., Kindle, K. L. & Stern, D. B. The initiation codon determines the efficiency but not the site of translation initiation in Chlamydomonas chloroplasts. Plant Cell 7, 1295–1305 (1995)
Acknowledgements
We thank C. Lo and D. Morris-Rosendahl for critical reading of this manuscript. We are grateful to M. Sugimoto, A. Ito-Igarashi, K. Nakaguchi, S. Minami, Y. H. Park, Y. Mochizuki, Y. Ozawa, K. Ohki, T. Obata, A. Heer and C. Reinhardt for excellent fish care and/or experimental assistance. We also thank A. Shimada and D. Nihei for their help in medaka experiments, J. Freshour and M. Nakatsugawa for help with Chlamydomonas, and S. King, H. Qin, W. Sale and D. Stern for antibodies. Our mutant screening was carried out mainly at the National Institute of Genetics (NIG), supported by NIG Cooperative Research Program (2002–2006). This work was supported in part by Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research Priority Area Genome Science and Scientific Research (A and B), Global COE Program (Integrative Life Science Based on the Study of Biosignaling Mechanisms) from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) of Japan, Yamada Science Foundation, and a Bio-Design Project of the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Japan. D.K. was a research fellow supported by the 21th century COE program of the University of Tokyo, MEXT, Japan. This work was supported by grants to H.Omran from the ‘Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft’ DFG Om 6/4, GRK1104, BIOSS and the SFB592, and to D.R.M. from the NIH, GM44228. We would like to acknowledge the sequencing activities by K. Borzym and the Seq-Team at MPI-MG, which was supported by the German Ministry of Science and Education (BMBF) by grant NGFN-2:01GR0414-PDN-S02T17 to R.R. We are grateful for the support by the ‘Primare Ciliaere Dyskinesie and Kartagener Syndrom e.V.’.
Author Contributions Research planning and supervision was by H.Omran, D.R.M. and H.T.; medaka genetics and phenotypic analyses by D.K., T.T. and H.T.; biochemical experiments using mouse testis was by T.T., S.K. and Y.W.; high-speed video microscopy of medaka Kupffer’s vesicle cilia was by C.H., H.M., H.K., D.K. and A.M.; electron microscopy of medaka cilia/flagella was by H.H. and R.K.; experiments on human PCD were by H. Omran, H. Olbrich, N.T.L., M.F., H.Z., H.S. and R.R.; Chlamydomonas experiments were by D.R.M., Q.Z., G.L., E.O., T.Y. and R.K.; and manuscript writing was by H.Omran, D.R.M. and H.T.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Supplementary information
Supplementary Information
This file contains Supplementary Tables S1-S5, Supplementary Figures S1-S7 with legends, and legends for Supplementary movies S1-S10. (PDF 6645 kb)
Supplementary Movie 1
Movie S1. Dorsal view of cilia in wild-type Kupffer's vesicle. The wild-type motile cilia rotate on the KV epithelial cells. (MOV 1845 kb)
Supplementary Movie 2
Movie S2. Dorsal view of cilia in ktu mutant Kupffer's vesicle. The cilia rotation is completely blocked. (MOV 1539 kb)
Supplementary Movie 3
Movie S3. Flagellar waveform of wild-type sperm. The wild-type flagellar bending beautifully propagate to the tip of the sperm tail. (MOV 1718 kb)
Supplementary Movie 4
Movie S4. Flagellar waveform of ktu mutant sperm. The mutant sperm looks paralyzed and the waveform of flagellar beating is affected. The flagellar bending does not propagate to the tip of the sperm tail. (MOV 2096 kb)
Supplementary Movie 5
Movie S5. Motility of cilia in respiratory cells from control patients. (AVI 420 kb)
Supplementary Movie 6
Movie S6. Motility of cilia in respiratory cells from PCD patient OP146II1. (AVI 244 kb)
Supplementary Movie 7
Movie S7. Motility of cilia in respiratory cells from PCD patient OP146II3. (AVI 311 kb)
Supplementary Movie 8
Movie S8. Motility of cilia in respiratory cells from PCD patient OP234II1. (AVI 417 kb)
Supplementary Movie 9
Movie S9. Motility of sperm flagella from control patients. (AVI 951 kb)
Supplementary Movie 10
Movie S10. Motility of sperm flagella from PCD patient OP146II3. (AVI 542 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Omran, H., Kobayashi, D., Olbrich, H. et al. Ktu/PF13 is required for cytoplasmic pre-assembly of axonemal dyneins. Nature 456, 611–616 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1038/nature07471
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nature07471
- Springer Nature Limited
This article is cited by
-
Clinical and genetic analysis of two patients with primary ciliary dyskinesia caused by a novel variant of DNAAF2
BMC Pediatrics (2023)
-
A change of heart: new roles for cilia in cardiac development and disease
Nature Reviews Cardiology (2022)
-
Novel Gene Variants Associated with Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia
Indian Journal of Pediatrics (2022)
-
Motile cilia genetics and cell biology: big results from little mice
Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences (2021)
-
Biallelic mutations of CFAP74 may cause human primary ciliary dyskinesia and MMAF phenotype
Journal of Human Genetics (2020)