Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Adolescent Bullying, Relationships, Psychological Well-Being, and Gender-Atypical Behavior: A Gender Diagnosticity Approach

  • Published:
Sex Roles Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In this study we used a gender diagnostic (GD) approach to examine the associations between gender-atypical behavior and gender role (masculinity—M and femininity—F), bullying, peer relationships, and psychological well-being in a large community sample of 15-year-olds. GD showed little relationship with gender role. Irrespective of sex, M was positively, and F negatively associated with being a bully. “Gender atypical” boys reported more victimization, more loneliness, fewer male friends, and greater distress than their “gender typical” peers. After accounting for M and F, “femaleness” (“gender atypical” boys and “extremely gender-typed” girls) was associated with psychological distress. GD is an effective and unobtrusive method to identify a group whose vulnerability should be recognized by psychology, health, and education professionals.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

references

  • Ambert, A. (1994). A qualitative study of peer abuse and its effects: Theoretical and empirical implications. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 56, 119-130.

    Google Scholar 

  • Annandale, E., & Hunt, K. (1990). Masculinity, femininity and sex: An exploration of their relative contribution to explaining gender differences in health. Sociology of Health and Illness, 12, 24-46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aube, J., Fichman, L., Saltaris, C., & Koestner, R. (2000). Gender differences in adolescent depressive symptomatology: Towards an integrated social-developmental model. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 19, 297-313.

    Google Scholar 

  • Auster, C. J., & Ohm, S. C. (2000). Masculinity and femininity in contemporary American society: A re-evaluation using the Bem Sex-Role Inventory. Sex Roles, 43, 499-528.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bagley, C., & D'Augelli, A. (2000). Suicidal behavior in gay, lesbian, and bisexual youth (Editorial). BMJ, 320, 1617-1618.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bank, B., & Hansford, S. (2000). Gender and friendship: Why are men's best same-sex friendships less intimate and supportive? Personal Relationships, 7, 63-78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Banks, M. H. (1983). Validation of the General Health Questionnaire in a young community sample. Psychological Medicine, 13, 349-353.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bem, S. L. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42, 155-162.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bem, S. L. (1995). The lenses of gender: Transforming the debate on sexual inequality. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boldizar, J. (1991). Assessing sex typing and androgyny in children: The Children's Sex Role Inventory. Developmental Psychology, 27, 505-515.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boulton, M., & Hawker, D. (1997). Non-physical forms of bullying among school pupils: A cause for concern. Health Education, 2, 61-64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boulton, M., & Smith, P. (1994). Bully-victim problems in middle-school children: Stability, self-perceived competence, peer perceptions, and peer acceptance. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 12, 315-329.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bradley, S. J., & Zucker, K. J. (1997). Gender Identity Disorder: A review of the past 10 years. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 872-880.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brazelton, E., Greene, K., & Gynther, M. (1996). Femininity, depression and stress in college women. Social Behavior and Personality, 24, 329-333.

    Google Scholar 

  • Byrne, B. (1994). Bullies and victims in a school setting with reference to some Dublin schools. Irish Journal of Psychology, 15, 574-586.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cavender, G., Bond-Maupin, L., & Jurik, N. (1999). The construction of gender in reality crime TV. Gender & Society, 13, 643-663.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen-Kettenis, P. T., Owen, A., Kaijser, V. G., Bradley, S. J., & Zucker, K. J. (2003). Demographic characteristics, social competence, and behavior problems in children with Gender Identity Disorder: A cross-national, cross-clinic comparative analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 41-53.

    Google Scholar 

  • Constantinople, A. (1973). masculinity–femininity: An exception to a famous dictum? Psychological Bulletin, 80, 389-407.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cramer, K., & Neyedley, K. (1998). Sex differences in loneliness: The role of masculinity and femininity. Sex Roles, 38, 645-65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R., & Grotpeter, J. K. (1995). Overt and relational aggression in adolescents: Social-psychological adjustment of aggressors and victims. Child Development, 66, 710-722.

    Google Scholar 

  • Desrochers, S. (1995). What types of men are most attractive and most repulsive to women? Sex Roles, 32, 375-391.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ecob, R., Sweeting, H., West, P., & Mitchell, R. (1996). The West of Scotland 11 to 16 Study: Schools, sample design and implementation issues (Working Paper No. 61). Glasgow, UK: MRC Medical Sociology Unit.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eslea, M., & Smith, P. (1998). The long-term effectiveness of anti-bullying work in primary schools. Educational Research, 40, 203-218.

    Google Scholar 

  • Franklin, K. (2000). Antigay behavior among young adults: Prevalence, patterns, and motivators in a noncriminal population. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 15, 339-362.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gillespie, B., & Eisler, R. (1992). Development of the Feminine Gender-Role Stress Scale: A cognitive-behavioural measure of stress, appraisal, and coping for women. Behavior Modification, 16, 426-438.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg, D., & Williams, P. (1988). A user's guide to the General Health Questionnaire. Windsor, UK: NEFR Nelson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Green, R. (1987). The “sissy boy syndrome” and the development of homosexuality. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hankin, B., & Abramson, L. (1999). Development of gender differences in depression: Description and possible explanations. Annals of Medicine, 31, 372-379.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harry, J. (1983). Parasuicide, gender, and gender deviance. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24, 350-361.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hart, B., & Thompson, J. (1996). Gender role characteristics and depressive symptomatology among adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 16, 407-426.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hendry, L., Shucksmith, J., Love, J., & Glendinning, A. (1993). Young people's leisure and lifestyles. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hugh-Jones, S., & Smith, P. (1999). Self-reports of short-and long-term effects of bullying on children who stammer. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 69, 141-158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunt, K., & Sweeting, H. (1996). Gender role orientation and age: A comparison of the Bem Sex Role Inventory in three cohorts (Working Paper No 39). Glasgow, UK: MRC Medical Sociology Unit.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, D., & Costin, S. (1995). Friendship quality during preadolescence and adolescence: The contributions of relationship orientations, instrumentality, and expressivity. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 41, 517-535.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaltiala-Heino, R., Rimpela, M., Marttunen, M., Rimpela, A., & Rantanen, P. (1999). Bullying, depression, and suicidal ideation in Finnish adolescents: School study. BMJ, 319, 348-351.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kandel, D., & Davies, M. (1982). Epidemiology of depressive mood in adolescents. Archives of Psychiatry, 29, 1205-1212.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kumpulainen, R., Rasanen, E., & Hentonnen, I. (1999). Children involved in bullying: Psychological disturbance and persistence of the involvement. Child Abuse & Neglect, 23, 1253-1262.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kumpulainen, R., Rasanen, E., Hentonnen, I., Almqvist, F., Kresanov, K., Linna, S., et al. (1998). Bullying and psychiatric symptoms among elementary school-age children. Child Abuse & Neglect, 22, 705-717.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lengua, L., & Stormshak, E. (2000). Gender, gender roles, and personality: Gender differences in the prediction of coping and psychological symptoms. Sex Roles, 43, 787-820.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levy, G., Taylor, M., & Gelman, S. (1995). Traditional and evaluative aspects of flexibility in gender roles, social conventions, moral rules, and physical laws. Child Development, 66, 515-531.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lippa, R. (1991). Some psychometric characteristics of gender diagnosticity measures: Reliability, validity, consistency across domains, and relationship to the Big Five. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 1000-1011.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lippa, R. (1995). Gender-related individual differences and psychological adjustment in terms of the Big Five and circumplex models. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 1184-1202.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lippa, R. (1998). The nonverbal display and judgment of extraversion, masculinity, femininity, and gender diagnosticity: A lens model analysis. Journal of Research in Personality, 32, 80-107.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lippa, R. (2000). Gender-related traits in gay men, lesbian women, and heterosexual men and women: The virtual identity of homosexual-heterosexual diagnosticity and gender diagnosticity. Journal of Personality, 68, 899-926.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lippa, R. (2001). Gender-related traits in transsexuals and non-transsexuals. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 30, 603-614.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lippa, R. (2002a). Gender-related traits of heterosexual and homosexual men and women. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 31, 77-92.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lippa, R. (2002b).Gender, nature and nuture. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lippa, R., & Connelly, S. (1990). Gender diagnosticity: A new Bayesian approach to gender-related individual differences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 1051-1065.

    Google Scholar 

  • Macintyre, S., Hunt, K., & Sweeting, H. (1996). Gender differences in health: Are things really as simple as they seem? Social Science & Medicine, 42, 617-624.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, C. (1990). Attitudes and expectations about children with nontraditional and traditional gender roles. Sex Roles, 22, 151-165.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marusic, I., & Bratko, D. (1998). Relations of masculinity and femininity with personality dimensions of the five-factor model. Sex Roles, 38, 29-44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mellor, A. (1997). Bullying: The Scottish experience. Irish Journal of Psychology, 18, 248-257.

    Google Scholar 

  • Menvielle, E. (1998). Gender identity disorder (letter to the Editor). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 243-244.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mirowsky, J., & Ross, C. (1995). Sex differences in distress: Real or artifact? American Sociological Review, 60, 449-468.

    Google Scholar 

  • Monsour, M. (2002). Women and men as friends: Relationships across the life span in the 21st century. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morrison, C., & MacKay, A. (2000). The experience of violence and harassment of gay men in the city of Edinburgh (Report by the Scottish Executive Central Research Unit). Edinburgh, UK: The Stationery Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nansel, T., Overpeck, M., Pilla, R., Ruan, W., Simons-Morton, B., & Scheidt, P. (2001). Bullying behaviors among US youth: Prevalence and association with psychosocial adjustment. Journal of the American Medical Association, 285, 2094-2100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Norusis, M. (1985). SPSS-X: Advanced statistics guide. Chicago: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olweus, D. (1990). Bullying among school children. In K. Hurrelmann & F. Losel (Eds.), Health hazards in adolescence (pp. 259-297). Berlin: De Gruyter.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olweus, D. (1993). Bullying at school: What we know and what we can do. Oxford: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • O'Moore, A., & Hillery, B. (1989). Bullying in Dublin schools. Irish Journal of Psychology, 10, 426-441.

    Google Scholar 

  • O'Moore, A., Kirkham, C., & Smith, M. (1997). Bullying behaviour in Irish schools: A nationwide study. Irish Journal of Psychology, 18, 141-169.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, L., & Rigby, K. (1999). Countering bullying at an Australian secondary school with students as helpers. Journal of Adolescence, 22, 481-492.

    Google Scholar 

  • Powlishta, K. (2000). The effect of target age on the activation of gender stereotypes. Sex Roles, 42, 271-282.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prinstein, M. J., Boergers, J., & Vernberg, E. M. (2001). Overt and relational aggression in adolescents: Social-psychological adjustment of aggressors and victims. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 479-491.

    Google Scholar 

  • Radanovic, Z., & Eric, L. (1983). Validity of the General Health Questionnaire in a Yugoslav student population. Psychological Medicine, 13, 205-207.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reay, D. (2002). Shaun's story: Troubling discourses of White working-class masculinities. Gender & Education, 14, 221-234.

    Google Scholar 

  • Redman, P. (2000). “Tarred with the same brush”: “Homophobia” and the role of the unconscious in school-based cultures of masculinity. Sexualities, 3, 483-499.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reeder, H. (2003). The effect of gender role orientation on same-and cross-sex friendship formation. Sex Roles, 49, 143-153.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rigby, K. (1999). Peer victimization at school and the health of secondary school students. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 69, 95-104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Salmon, G., James, D., & Smith, D. (1998). Bullying in schools: Self reported anxiety, depression, and self-esteem in secondary school children. BMJ, 317, 924-925.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sanfilipo, M. (1994). Masculinity, femininity, and subjective experiences of depression. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 50, 144-157.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sappington, J., Notte, C., & Broerman, F. (1998). Comparisons by sex of psychometric correlates of the MMPI-2 Depression Scale. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 87, 539-543.

    Google Scholar 

  • Savin-Williams, R. (1994). Verbal and physical abuse as stressors in the lives of lesbian, gay male, and bisexual youths: Associations with school problems, running away, substance abuse, prostitution, and suicide. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 261-269.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shepherd, P. (1993). Appendix 1: Analysis of response bias. In Ferri (Ed.), Life at 33. The fifth follow-up of the National Child Development Study (pp. 184-187). London, UK: National Children's Bureau.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swain, J. (1998). What does bullying really mean? Educational Research, 40, 358-364.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sweeting, H. (1995). Reversals of fortune? Sex differences in health in childhood and adolescence. Social Science & Medicine, 40, 77-90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sweeting, H., Der, G., & West, P. (2001). Bias, attrition and weighting in respect of the West of Scotland 11 to 16 Study's Baseline, S2 and S4 surveys (Working Paper No. 9). Glasgow, UK: MRC Social & Public Health Sciences Unit.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sweeting, H., & West, P. (2001). Being different: Correlates of the experience of teasing and bullying at age 11. Research Papers in Education, 16, 225-246.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tabachnick, B., & Fidell, L. (1996). Using multivariate statistics. New York: Harper Collins.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, M., & Hall, J. (1982). Psychological androgyny: Theories, methods, and conclusions. Psychological Bulletin, 92, 347-366.

    Google Scholar 

  • Terman, L., & Miles, C. (1936). Sex and personality: Studies in masculinity and femininity. New York: Russell & Russell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, S., & Robinson, M. (1981). Development of a measure of androgyny for young adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 1, 195-209.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thornton, B., & Leo, R. (1992). Gender typing, importance of multiple roles, and mental health consequences for women. Sex Roles, 27, 307-317.

    Google Scholar 

  • West, P., & Sweeting, H. (1996). Background, rationale and design of the West of Scotland 11 to 16 Study (Working Paper No. 52). Glasgow, UK: MRC Medical Sociology Unit.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitney, I., & Smith, P. (1993). A survey of the nature and extent of bullying in junior/middle and secondary schools. Educational Research, 35, 3-25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wichstrom, L. (1999). The emergence of gender differences in depressed mood during adolescence: The role of intensified gender socialization. Developmental Psychology, 35, 232-245.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilhelm, K., Parker, G., & Asghari, A. (1998). Sex differences in the experience of depressed mood state over fifteen years. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 33, 16-20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, K., Chambers, M., Logan, S., & Robinson, D. (1996). Association of common health symptoms with bullying in primary school children. BMJ, 313, 17-19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolke, D., Woods, S., Bloomfield, L., & Karstadt, L. (2000). The association between direct and relational bullying and behavior problems among primary school children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 41, 989-1002.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zucker, K. J., & Bradley, S. J. (1995). Gender identity disorder and psychosexual problems in children & adolescents. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zucker, K. J., Bradley, S. J., & Sanikhani, M. (1997). Sex differences in referral rates of children with gender identity disorder: Some hypotheses. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 25, 217-227.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zucker, K. J., Owen, A., Bradley, S. J., & Ameeriar, L. (2002). Gender-dysphoric children and adolescents: A comparative analysis of demographic characteristics and behavioral problems. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 7, 398-411.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zucker, K. J., Smith, D. W., Kurita, J., & Stern, A. (1995). Children's appraisals of sex-typed behavior in their peers. Sex Roles, 33, 703-725.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. MRC Social and Public Health Sciences Unit, University of Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom

    Robert Young & Helen Sweeting

Authors
  1. Robert Young
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Helen Sweeting
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Young, R., Sweeting, H. Adolescent Bullying, Relationships, Psychological Well-Being, and Gender-Atypical Behavior: A Gender Diagnosticity Approach. Sex Roles 50, 525–537 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1023/B:SERS.0000023072.53886.86

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:SERS.0000023072.53886.86

Search

Navigation