Abstract
To expound on the nature of emotional deficits in PTSD, the current study investigated the relationships among emotion content and process variables and PTSD symptomatology in a sample of 85 veterans with military-related trauma. Alexithymic externally oriented thinking and negative affectivity emerged as the most consistent predictors of PTSD symptoms; however, depression was the only variable associated with emotional numbing. Theoretical and clinical implications of these findings are discussed, as well as future research directions including the collateral and clinician assessment of emotional functioning, use of other process measures, and inclusion of various control groups.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
Badura, A. S. (2003). Theoretical and empirical exploration of the similarities between emotional numbing in posttraumatic stress disorder and alexithymia. Anxiety Disorders, 17 349–360.
Bagby, R. M., Taylor, G. J., & Parker, J. D. A. (1988). Construct validity of the Toronto Alexithymia Scale. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 50 29–34.
Bagby, R. M., Taylor, G. J., & Parker, J. D. A. (1994a). The twenty-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale-I: Item selection and cross-validation of the factor structure. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 38 23–32.
Bagby, R. M., Taylor, G. J., & Parker, J. D. A. (1994b). The twenty-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale-II: Convergent, discriminant, and concurrent validity. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 38 33–40.
Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Garbin, M. G. (1988). Psychometric properties of the Beck Depression Inventory: Twenty-five years of evaluation. Clinical Psychology Review, 8 77–100.
Beck, A. T., Ward, C. H., Mendelsohn, M., Mock, J., & Erbaugh, J. (1961). An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 4 561–571.
Boeschen, L. E., Koss, M. P., Figueredo, A. J., & Coan, J. A. (2001). Experiential avoidance and post-traumatic stress disorder: A cognitive mediational model of rape recovery. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma, 4 211–245.
Chemtob, C. M., Novaco, R. W., Hamada, R. S., & Gross, D. M. (1997). Cognitive-behavioral treatment for severe anger in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65 184–189.
Cloitre, M., Koenen, K. C., Cohen, L. R., & Han, H. (2002). Skills training in affective and interpersonal regulation followed by exposure: A phase-based treatment for PTSD related to childhood abuse. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70 1067–1074.
Feeny, N. C., Zoellner, L. A., Fitzgibbons, L. A., & Foa, E. B. (2000). Exploring the roles of emotional numbing, depression, and dissociation in PTSD. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13 489–498.
Foa, E. B., & Kozak, M. J. (1991). Emotional processing: Theory, research, and clinical implications for anxiety disorders. In J. D. Safran & L. S. Greenberg (Eds.), Emotion, psychotherapy, and change (pp. 21–49). NY: Guilford.
Foa, E. B., Zinbarg, R., & Rothbaum, B. O. (1992). Uncontrollability and unpredictability in post-traumatic stress disorder: An animal model. Psychological Bulletin, 112 218–238.
Forbes, D., Creamer, M., & Biddle, D. (2001). The validity of the PTSD checklist as a measure of symptomatic change in combat-related PTSD. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39 977–986.
Horowitz, M. J. (1986). Stress response syndromes (2nd ed.). Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson.
Kimball, L. A. (1999). Alexithymia in survivors of sexual assault: Predicting treatment outcome. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Missouri-St. Louis, St. Louis, MO.
Kubany, E. S., & Watson, S. B. (2002). Cognitive trauma therapy for formerly battered women with PTSD: Conceptual bases and treatment outlines. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 9 111–127.
Litz, B. T., Orsillo, S. M., Kaloupek, D., & Weathers, F. (2000). Emotional processing in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109 26–39.
Luminet, O., Bagby, R. M., Wagner, H., Taylor, G. J., & Parker, J. D. A. (1999). Relation between alexithymia and the five-factor model of personality: A facet-level analysis. Journal of Personality Assessment, 73 345–358.
Müllera, J., Bühnerb, M., & Ellgringa, H. (2003). Relationship and differential validity of alexithymia and depression: A comparison of the Toronto alexithymia and self-rating depression scales. Psychopathology, 36 71–77.
Paivio, S. C., & Nieuwenhuis, J. A. (2001). Efficacy of emotion focused therapy for adult survivors of child abuse: A preliminary study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14 115–133.
Ramirez, S. M., Glover, H., Ohlde, C. D., Mercer, R. G., Goodnick, P., Hamlin, C. L., et al. (2001). Relationship of numbing to alexithymia, apathy, and depression. Psychological Reports, 88 189–200.
Rosenheck, R. A., & Fontana, A. (2003). The longjourney home X, Treatment of PTSD in the Department of Veterans Affairs: Fiscal year 2002 service delivery and performance. West Haven, CT: Northeast Program Evaluation Center.
Taylor, G. J. (1984). Alexithymia: Concept, measurement and implications for treatment. American Journal of Psychiatry, 141 725–732.
Taylor, G. J., Ryan, D., & Bagby, R. M. (1985). Toward the development of a new self-report alexithymia scale. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 44 191–199.
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS Scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54 1063–1070.
Weathers, F. W., Litz, B. T., Herman, J. A., Huska, J. A., & Keane, T. M. (1993, November). The PTSD Checklist (PCL): Reliability, validity and diagnostic utility. Paper presented at the 9th Annual Conference of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, San Antonio, TX.
Yehuda, R., Steiner, A., Kahana, B., Binder-Brynes, K., Southwick, S. M., Zemelman, S., et al. (1997). Alexithymia in Holocaust survivors with and without PTSD. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 10 93–100.
Zlotnick, C., Mattia, J. I., & Zimmerman, M. (2001). The relationship between posttraumatic stress disorder, childhood trauma and alexithymia in an outpatient sample. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14 177–188.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
About this article
Cite this article
Monson, C.M., Price, J.L., Rodriguez, B.F. et al. Emotional Deficits in Military-Related PTSD: An Investigation of Content and Process Disturbances. J Trauma Stress 17, 275–279 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOTS.0000029271.58494.05
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOTS.0000029271.58494.05