Abstract
Studies in mammals have shown that synthetic Met-enkephalin derivatives, called growth hormone-releasing peptides (GHRPs), stimulate growth hormone (GH) release. In the present study, GHRP-6 action on GH secretion was examined in vivo and in vitro in sexually immature grass carp. GHRP-6 injected intraperitoneally had no influences on serum GH levels in juvenile grass carp. Following intraperitonal injection of GHRP-6 and dopamine (DA) or cysteamine hydrochloride (CSH), alone and in combination into juvenile grass carp, DA and CSH were effective in elevating serum GH levels, but GHRP-6 was not effective in this respect; in addition, the synergistic action of GHRP-6 and DA or CSH on GH secretion was not seen. In this work, we had adapted and validated a perifusion system and a culture system for GH regulation studies. In a perifusion system, GHRP-6 (1000 to 0.1 nM), GHRP-6 (0.1 to 1000 nM), GHRP-6 (1 μM), and Hexarelin (an analog of GHRP, 1 μM) had no action on GH release from juvenile grass carp pituitary fragments or cells. Under static incubation conditions, GHRP-6 was inactive on GH release from juvenile grass carp pituitary fragments after 1 h and 6 h incubation, but human growth hormone-releasing hormone (hGHRH; 1 to 100 nM) as positive control could stimulate GH release in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, when GHRP-6 (100 nM) in combination static incubation with neuropeptides [e.g., hGHRH (100 nM), salmon gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogue (sGnRH-A) (100 nM), or D-Ala6,Pro9-NEt-luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (D-Ala6,Pro9-NEt-LHRH, LHRH-A) (100nM)], GHRP-6 did not strengthen GH secretion actions of neuropeptides, and at the same time neuropeptides also did not modify the effects of GHRP-6 on GH secretion. The present results obtained using in vivo and in vitro techniques adapted for GH regulation studies show that GHRP-6 does not function as a GH-releasing factor in juvenile grass carp as it does in tilapia, amphibians, chickens, and mammals.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ahmed S. and Harvey S. 2002. Ghrelin: a hypothalamic GH-releasing factor in domestic fowl (Gallus domesticus). J. Endocrinol. 172: 117–125.
Bailey A.R., Gilliver L., Leng G. and Smith R.G. 2001. Central actions of the nonpeptide growth hormone secretagogue GHS-25. Endocrine 14: 15–19.
Bercu B.B., Yang S.W., Masuda R. and Walker R.F. 1992. Role of selected endogenous peptides in growth hormone-releasing hexapeptide activity: analysis of growth hormone-releasing hormone, thyroid hormone-releasing hormone, and gonadotropin-releasing hormone. Endocrinology 130: 2579–2586
Blaise O., Le Bail P. and Weil C. 1995. Lack of gonadotropin releasing-hormone action on in vivo and in vitro growth hormone release, in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Comparative Biochem. Physiol. 110C: 133–141.
Blake A.D. and Smith R.G. 1991. Desensitization studies using perifused rat pituitary cells show that growth hormone-releasing hormone and His-D-Trp-Ala-Trp-D-Phe-Lys-NH2 stimulates growth hormone release through distinct receptor sites. J. Endocrinol. 129: 11–19.
Bosma P., Kolk S., Rebers F., Lescroart O., Roelants I., Willems P. and Schulz R. 1997. Gonadotrophs but not somatotrophs carry gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptors: receptor localization, intracellular calcium, and gonadotropin and GH release. J. Endocrinol. 52: 437–446.
Bowers C.Y. 1998. Growth hormone-releasing peptide (GHRP). Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 54: 1316–1329.
Bowers C.Y., Chang J.P., Momany F. and Folkers K. 1977. Effects of the enkephalins and enkephalin analogs on release of pituitary hormones in vitro. In: ‘Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Endocrinology’ Edited by I MacIntrye, Elsevier/North-Holland, Amsterdam, p. 287
Bowers C.Y., Momany F.A., Reynolds G.A. and Hong A. 1984. On the in vitro and in vivo activity of a new synthetic hexapeptide that acts on the pituitary to specifically release growth hormone. Endocrinology 114: 1537–1545.
Chang J.P., Cook H., Freedman G., Wiggs A.J., Somoza G.M., De Leeuw R. and Peter R.E. 1990. Use of a pituitary cell dispersion method and primary culture system for the studies of gonadotropin-releasing hormone action in the goldfish, Carassius auratus. I. Initial morphological, static, and cell column perifusion studies. Gen. Comparative Endocrinol. 77: 256–273.
Chen C. 2000. Growth hormone secretagogue actions on the pituitary gland: multiple receptors for multiple ligands? Clin. Experiment. Pharmacol. Physiol. 27 323–329.
Cheng K., Chan W.W.S., Butler B.S., Barreto A. and Smith R.G. 1989. The synergistic effects of His-D-Trp-Ala-Trp-D-Phe-Lys-NH2 on GRF-stimulated growth hormone release and intracellular cAMP accumulation in rat primary pituitary cell cultures. Endocrinology 124: 2791–2797.
Cheng K., Chan W.W.S., Butler B.S., Barreto A. and Smith R.G. 1991. Evidence for a role of protein kinase-C in His-D-Trp-Ala-Trp-D-Phe-Lys-NH2-induced growth hormone release from rat primary pituitary cells. Endocrinology 129: 3337–3342.
Galas L., Chartrel N., Kojima M., Kangawa K. and Vaudry H. 2002. Immunohistochemical localization and biochemical characterization of ghrelin in the brain and stomach of the frog Rana esculenta. J. Comparative Neurol. 450: 34–44.
Geris K.L., Hickey G.J., Berghman L.R., Visser T.J., Kuhn E.R. and Darras V.M. 1998. Pituitary and extrapituitary action sites of the novel nonpeptidyl growth hormone (GH) secretagogue L-692,492 in the chicken. Gen. Comparative Endocrinol. 111: 186–196.
Geris K.L., Hickey G.J., Vanderghote A., Kuhn E.R. and Darras V.M. 2001. Synthetic growth hormone secretagogues control growth hormone secretion in the chicken at pituitary and hypothalamic levels. Endocrine 14: 67–72.
Habibi H.R., Marchant T.A., Nahorniak C.S., Van der Loo H., Peter R.E., Rivier J.E. and Vale W.W. 1989. Functional relationship between receptor binding and biological activity for analogs of mammalian and salmon gonadotropin-releasing hormones in the pituitary of goldfish, Carassius auratus. Biol. Reproduction 40: 1152–1161.
Hosoda H., Kojima M., Mizushima T., Shimizu S. and Kangawa K. 2003. Structural divergence of human ghrelin. Identification of multiple ghrelin-derived molecules produced by posttranslational processing. J. Biol. Chem. 278: 64–70
Howard A.D., Feighner S.D. and Cully D.F. 1996. A receptor in pituitary and hypothalamus that functions in growth hormone release. Science 273: 974–977.
Kagabu Y., Mishiba T., Okino T. and Yanagisawa T. 1998. Effects of thyrotropin-releasing hormone and its metabolites, cyclo (His-Pro) and TRH-OH, on growth hormone and prolactin synthesis in primary cultured pituitary cells of the common carp, Cyprinus carpio. Gen. Comparative Endocrinol. 111: 395–403.
Kaiya H., Kojima M., Hosoda H., Koda A., Yamamoto K., Kitajima Y., Matsumoto M., Minamitake Y., Kikuyama S. and Kangawa K. 2001 Bullfrog ghrelin is modified by n-octanoic acid at its third threonine residue. J. Biol. Chem. 276: 40441–40448.
Kaiya H., Kojima M., Hosoda H., Riley L.G., Hirano T., Grau E.G. and Kangawa K. 2003. Amidated fish ghrelin: purification, cDNA cloning in the Japanese eel and its biological activity. J. Endocrinol. 176: 415–423.
Kaiya H., Van Der Geyten S., Kojima M., Hosoda H., Kitajima Y., Matsumoto M., Geelissen S., Darras V.M. and Kangawa K. 2002. Chicken ghrelin: purification, cDNA cloning, and biological activity. Endocrinology 143: 3454–3463.
Kojima M., Hosoda H., Date Y., Nakazato M., Matsuo H. and Kangawa K. 1999. Ghrelin is a growth hormone-releasing acylated peptide from stomach. Nature 402: 656–660.
Kojima M., Hosoda H., Matsuo H. and Kanagawa K. 2001 Ghrelin: discovery of the natural endogenous ligand for the growth hormone secretagogue receptor. Trends Endocrinol. Metabolism 12: 118–122
Lescroart O., Roelants I., Mikolajcyk T., Bosma P.T., Schulz R.W., Kühn E.R. and Ollevier F. 1996. A radioimmunoassay for African catfish growth hormone: Validation and effects of substances modulating the release of growth hormone. Gen. Comparative Endocrinol. 104: 147–155.
Li S. 1994. Fish species cultured: Characteristics of freshwater fish resources. In ‘Freshwater Fish Culture in China: Principles and Practice’ Edited by S. Li and J. Mathias. New York: Elsevier. pp. 27–50.
Lin X.W., Lin H.R. and Peter R.E. 1993a. Growth hormone and gonadotropin secretion in the common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.): in vitro interactions of gonadotropin-releasing hormone, somatostatin, and the dopamine agonist apomorphine. Gen. Comparative Endocrinol. 89: 62–71.
Lin X.W., Lin H.R. and Peter R.E. 1993b. The regulatory effects of thyrotropin-releasing hormone on growth hormone secretion from the pituitary of common carp in vitro. Fish Physiol. Biochem. 11: 71–76.
Lin H.R., Lin X.W., Zhang Q. and Peter R.E. 1992. The regulation of growth hormone secretion in carp. In Fish quality management: Proceedings of 3 rd Biennial International Symposium, pp. 1–13. Edited by D.J. Randall, H. Xiang and R.V. Thurston. 1992 Nov 3–5; Nanjing, PRC.
Lin H.R., Lu M., Lin X.W., Zhang W.M., Sun Y. and Chen L.X. 1995. Effects of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) analogs and sex steroids on growth hormone secretion in common carp (Cyprinus carpio) and grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus). Aquaculture 135: 173–184.
Lin H.R. and Peter R.E. 1991. Aquaculture. In: ‘Cyprinid Fishes: Systematics, Biology and Exploitation’ (edited by I.L. Winfield and J.S. Nelson), Fish and Fisheries Series, Vol. 3, pp. 590–622. Chapman and Hall, London/New York.
Luo D. and McKeown B. 1991. Interaction of carp growth hormone-releasing factor and somatostatin on in vitro release of growth hormone in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Neuroendocrinology 54: 359–364.
Mackenzie O.S., Gould D.R., Peter R.E., Rivier J. and Vale W.W. 1984. Response of superfused goldfish pituitary fragments to mammalian and salmon gonadotropin-releasing hormone. Life Sci. 35: 2019–2026.
Marchant T., Chang J., Nahorniak C. and Peter R. 1989. Evidence that gonadotropin-releasing hormone also functions as a growth hormone-releasing factor in the goldfish. Endocrinology 124: 2509–2518.
Marchant T.A., Fraser R.A., Andrews P.C. and Peter R.E. 1987. The influence of mammalian and teleost somatostatins on the secretion of growth hormone from goldfish (Carassius auratus L.) pituitary fragments in vitro. Regulative Peptides 17: 41–52.
Mau S.E., Witt M.R., Bjerrum O.J., Saermark T. and Vilhardt H. 1995. Growth hormone releasing hexapeptide (GHRP-6) activates the inositol (1, 4, 5)-trisphosphate/diacylglycerol pathway in rat anterior pituitary cells. J. Receptor Signal Transduction Res. 15: 311–323.
Montero M., Yon L., Kikuyama S., Dufour S. and Vaudry H. 2000. Molecular evolution of the growth hormone-releasing hormone/pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide gene family. Functional implication in the regulation of growth hormone secretion. J. Molecular Endocrinol. 25: 157–168.
Montero M., Yon L., Rousseau K., Arimura A., Fournier A., Dufour S. and Vaudry H. 1998. Distribution, characterization and growth hormone releasing activity of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide in the European eel, Anguilla anguilla. Endocrinology 139: 4300–4310.
Mustonen A.M., Nieminen P. and Hyvarinen H. 2002. Leptin, ghrelin, and energy metabolism of the spawning burbot (Lota lota, L.). J. Experimental Zool. 293: 119–126.
Palyha O.C., Feighner S.D., Tan C.P., McKee K.K., Hreniuk D.L., Gao Y.D., Schleim K.D., Yang L., Moriello G.J., Nargund R., Patchett A.A., Howard A.D. and Smith R.G. 2000. Ligand activation domain of human orphan growth hormone (GH) secretagogue receptor (GHS-R) conserved from pufferfish to human. Mol. Endocrinol. 14: 160–169.
Parhar I.S., Sato H. and Sakuma Y. 2003. Ghrelin gene in cichlid fish is modulated by sex and development. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 305: 169–175.
Parker D., Power M., Swanson P., Rivier J. and Sherwood N. 1997. Exon skipping in the gene encoding pituitary adenylate cyclaseactivating polypeptide in salmon alters the expression of two hormones that stimulate growth hormone release. Endocrinology 138: 414–423.
Peino R., Baldelli R., Rodriquez-Garcia J., Rodriquez-Segade S., Kojima M., Kangawa K., Arvat E., Ghigo E., Dieguez C., Casanueva F.F. 2000. Ghrelin-induced growth hormone secretion in humans. Europ. J. Endocrinol. 143: R11–R14.
Peng C. and Peter R.E. 1997. Neuroendocrine regulation of growth hormone secretion and growth in fish. Zool. Studies 36: 79–89.
Peter R.E. and Marchant T.A. 1995. The endocrinology of growth in carp and related species. Aquaculture 129: 299–321.
Pong S.S., Chaung LY, Dean DC, Nargund RP, Patchett AA and Smith RG 1996. Identification of a new G-protein-linked receptor for growth hormone secretagogues. Molecular Endocrinol. 10: 57–61.
Rousseau K., Le Belle N., Marchelidon J. and Dufour S. 1999. Evidence that corticotropin-releasing hormone acts as a growth hormone-releasing factor in a primitive teleost, the European eel (Anguilla anguilla). J. Neuroendocrinol. 11: 385–392.
Riley L.G., Hirano T. and Grau E.G. 2002. Rat ghrelin stimulates growth hormone and prolactin release in the tilapia, Oreochromis mossambicus. Zool. Studies 19: 797–800.
Seoane L.M., Tovar S., Baldelli R., Arvat E., Ghigo E., Casanueva F.F. and Dieguez C. 2000. Ghrelin elicits a marked stimulatory effect on GH secretion in freely-moving rats. Europ. J. Endocrinol. 143: R7–R9.
Shepherd B.S., Eckert S.M., Parhar I.S., Vijayan M.M., Wakabayashi I., Hirano T., Grau E.G. and Chen T.T. 2000. The hexapeptide KP-102 (D-Ala-D-B-Nal-Ala-Trp-D-Phe-Lys-NH2) stimulates growth hormone release in a cichlid fish (Oreochromis mossambicus). J. Endocrinol. 167: R7–10.
Smith R.G., Feighner S., Prendergast K., Guan X. and Howard A. 1999. A new orphan receptor involved in pulsatile growth hormone release. Trends Endocrinol. Metabolism 10: 128–135.
Smith R.G., Griffin P.R., Xu Y., Smith A.G., Liu K., Calacay J., Feighner S.D., Pong C., Leong D., Pomes A., Cheng K., Van der Ploeg L.H., Howard A.D., Schaeffer J. and Leonard R.J. 2000. Adenosine: A partial agonist of the growth hormone secretagogue receptor. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Communication 276: 1306–1313.
Smith R.G., Leonard R., Bailey A.R., Palyha O., Feighner S., Tan C., Mckee K.K., Pong S.S., Griffin P. and Howard A. 2001. Growth hormone secretagogue receptor family members and ligands. Endocrine 14: 9–14.
Smith R.G., Van Der Ploeg L.H., Howard A.D., Feighner S.D., Cheng K., Hickey G.J., Wyvratt M.J., Fisher M.H., Nargund R.P. and Patchett A.A. 1997. Peptidomimetic regulation of growth hormone secretion. Endocrine Rev. 18: 621–645.
Trudeau V., Somoza G., Nahorniak C. and Peter R. 1992. Interactions of estradiol with gonadotropin-releasing hormone and thyrotropin-releasing hormone in the control of growth hormone secretion in the goldfish. Neuroendocrinology 56: 483–490.
Unniappan S., Lin X., Cervini L., Rivier J., Kaiya H., Kangawa K. and Peter R.E. 2002. Goldfish ghrelin: molecular characterization of the complementary deoxyribonucleic acid, partial gene structure and evidence for its stimulatory role in food intake. Endocrinology 143: 4143–4146.
Vaughan J., Rivier J., Spiess J., Peng C., Chang J., Peter R. and Vale W. 1992. Isolation and characterization of hypothalamic growth hormone-releasing factor from common carp, Cyprinus carpio. Neuroendocrinology 56: 539–549.
Wada R., Sakata I., Kaiya H., Nakamura K., Hayashi Y., Kangawa K. and Sakai T. 2003. Existence of ghrelin-immunopositive and-expressing cells in the proventriculus of the hatching and adult chicken. Regulatory Peptides 111: 123–128.
Weil C., Hansen P., Hyam D., Le Gac F., Breton B. and Crim L.W. 1986. Use of pituitary cells in primary culture to study the regulation of gonadotropin hormone (GtH) secretion in rainbow trout: setting up and validating the system as assessed by its responsiveness to mammalian and salmon gonadotropin releasing hormone. Gen. Comparative Endocrinol. 62: 202–209.
Wong A.O., Ng S., Lee E.K., Leung R.C. and Ho W.K. 1998. Somatostatin inhibits (D-Arg6, Pro9-NEt) salmon gonadotropin-releasing hormone-and dopamine D1–stimulated growth hormone-release from perifused pituitary cells of Chinese grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus). Gen. Comparative Endocrinol. 110: 29–45.
Wong A.O., Li W.S., Lee E.K., Leung M.Y., Tse L.Y., Chow B.K., Lin H.R. and Chang J.P. 2000. Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide as a novel hypophysiotropic factor in fish. Biochem. Cell Biol. 78: 329–343.
Wren A.M., Small C.J., Fribbens C.V., Neary N.M., Ward H.L., Seal L.J., Ghatei M.A. and Bloom S.R. 2002. The hypothalamic mechanisms of the hypophysiotropic action of ghrelin. Neuroendocrinology 76: 316–324.
Wren A.M., Small C.J., Ward H.L., Murphy K.G., Dakin C.L., Taheri S., Kennedy A.R., Roberts G.H., Morgan D.G., Ghatei M.A. and Bloom S.R. 2000. The novel hypothalamic peptide ghrelin stimulates food intake and growth hormone secretion. Endocrinology 141: 4325–4328.
Xiao D. and Lin H.R. 2003. Effects of cysteamine - a somatostatininhibiting agent on serum growth hormone levels and growth in juvenile grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus). Comparative Biochem. Physiol. A134: 93–99.
Yada T., Urano A. and Hirano T. 1991. Growth hormone and prolactin gene expression and release in the pituitary of rainbow trout in serum-free culture. Endocrinology 129: 1183–1192.
Zhang W.M. 1992. The studies on the compensatory growth and the episodic growth hormone secretion of grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus). Ph.D. Thesis, Zhongshan University of PR China.
Zhang W.M. and Lin H.R. 1994. The effect of refeeding on the compensatory growth and the changes of serum growth hormone (GH) levels in the fingerling of grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus). In The Third Asian Fisheries Forum, pp. 876–879. Edited by L.M. Chou, A.D. Munro, T.J. Lam, T.W. Chen, L.K.K. Cheong, J.K. Ding, K.K. Hooi, H.W. Khoo, V.P.S. Phang, K.F. Shim and C.H. Tan. Asian Fisheries Society, Manila, Philippines.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Xiao, D., Wong, A.O. & Lin, HR. Lack of growth hormone-releasing peptide-6 action on in vivo and in vitro growth hormone secretion in sexually immature grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus). Fish Physiology and Biochemistry 26, 315–327 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1023/B:FISH.0000009260.34930.12
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:FISH.0000009260.34930.12