Abstract
Aspergillus niger and Penicillium chrysogenum were able to grow on Czapek Dox medium amended with elevated concentrations [up to 500 ppm active ingredient (ai)] of the fungicide copper oxychloride. Solubilization of the fungicide in solid medium was evident by the appearance of a clear (halo) zone underneathand around the growing colonies. The halo formed with A. niger, grown on fungicide-containing nitrate nitrogen medium, was found subsequently to enclose concentric rings of newly crystalline precipitate. These crystals were extracted, examined by scanning electron microscopy and IR, and identified as copper oxalate.The supplemented nitrogen source to the medium greatly affected both fungicide solubilization and fungal tolerance. Ratios of fungicide solubilization rate (RS) in relation to the colony growth rate (RG) were significantly higher onammonium than on nitrate nitrogen medium for both fungal strains. Growth ratios (the colony extension rate in the presence of a given concentration of the fungicide in relation to the control colony growth rate) of A. niger were markedly loweron ammonium than on nitrate nitrogen medium. The cellular copper contents, taken up from the fungicide, and the medium titratable acidity were higher in ammonium than in nitrate medium for both fungi. These results suggested fungal possession of variable tolerance mechanisms to this fungicide by complexation and/or precipitation of copper in the medium. Additionally, this work emphasizes the activity of fungi intransformation of insoluble inorganic metal-containing fungicides into insoluble organic metal compounds, which has a potentiality in metal cycling in biogeochemical and environmental context.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Barnett HL (1962) Illustrated Genera of Imperfect Fungi. Burgess Publishing Co.
Bhaskar RB & Ahmad ST (1991) Root rot disease of barseem and its control. Indian Phytopath. 43: 589–590
Dixon-Hardy JE, Karamushka VI, Gruzina TJ, Nikovska GN, Sayer JA & Gadd GM (1998) Influence of the carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus source on the solubilization of insoluble metal compounds by Aspergillus niger. Mycol. Res. 102: 1050–1054
Dutton VM & Evans CS (1996) Oxalate production by fungi: its role in pathogenicity and ecology in the soil environment. Can. J. Microbiol. 42: 881–895
El-Mehalawy AA (1999) Role of amino acids and lipids in adaptation of fungi to higher concentrations of fungicides. Desert Institute Bull, Egypt 47: 119–133
El-Mehalawy AA, Abd Allah MM & Telwani KA (1999) Influence of copper oxychloride on growth-regulating substances of certain soil fungi. Desert Institute Bull, Egypt 47: 475–486
Franz A, Burgstaller W & Schinner F (1991) Leaching with Penicillium simplicissimum: Influence of metals and buffers on proton extrusion and citric acid production. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 57: 769–774
Gadd GM & White C (1989) Heavy metal and radionuclide accumulation and toxicity in fungi and yeasts. In: Poole RK & Gadd GM (Eds)Metal-Microbe Interactions (pp 19–38). IRL Press, Oxford
Gadd GM & Griffiths AJ (1980) Influence of pH on toxicity and uptake of copper in Aureobasidium pullulans. Transact. Br. Mycol. Soc. 75: 91–96
Gharieb MM & Gadd GM (1999) Influence of nitrogen source on the solubilization of natural gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) and the formation of calcium oxalate by different oxalic and citric acid producing fungal strains. Mycol. Res. 103: 473–481
Gharieb MM, Sayer JA & Gadd GM(1999) Solubilization of natural gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) and the formation of calcium oxalate by Aspergillus niger and Serpula himantioides. Mycol. Res. 102: 825–830
Gharieb MM (2000) Nutritional effects on oxalic acid production and the solubilization of natural gypsum by Aspergillus niger. Mycol. Res. 104: 550–556
Gharieb MM (2002) Biosorption and solubilization of copper oxychloride fungicide by Aspergillus niger and the influence of calcium. Biodegradation 13: 191–199
Gilman JC (1957) A Manual of Soil Fungi. The Iowa State University Press
Gokulapalan C, Nair M, Mohandas N & Koshy G (1988) Integrated control of Rhizoctonia solani and Hirschmanniella oryzae under field conditions. Integrated Pest Control: Progress and Prospectives. In Proceedings of the National Symposium (pp 381–383), held at Trivandrum, India
Hassall KA (1990) The Biochemistry and Uses of Pesticides: Structure, Metabolism, Mode of Action and Uses in Crop Protection. Macmillan Press Ltd, London
Hughes MN & Poole RK (1989) Metals, microorganisms and biotechnology. In: Metals and Micro-organisms (pp 303–358). Chapman and Hall, London, New York
Karpagavalli S (1997) Effect of different fungicides on the growth of Trichoderma. Indian J. Plant Prot. 25: 82–83
Kritzman G, Chet I & Henis Y (1977) The role of oxalic acid in the pathogenic behavior of Sclerotium rolfsii. Sacc. Exper. Mycol. 1: 280–285
Kubicek CP & Rohr M (1986) Citric acid fermentation. Crit. Rev. Biotech. 3: 331–373
Kucmierz J, Bartynska M & Mazur S (1989) Studies of fungal diseases on carrot grown for seed. Roczniki-Akademii-Rolniczejw-Poznaniu,-ogrodnictwo 194: 171–178
Lapeyrie F, Chilvers GA & Bhem CA (1987) Oxalic acid synthesis by the mycorrhizal fungus Paxillus involutus (Batsch. ex Fr.) Fr. New Phytol. 106: 139–146
Meeuse BJ & Campbell JM (1959) An inhibitor of oxalic acid oxidase in beet extracts. Plant Physiol. 34: 583–586
Mehta A, Chopra S & Mehta P (1990) Fungicides: inhibitory agents of cell wall degrading enzymes. Indian Phytopath. 43: 117–121
Morley GF, Sayer JA, Wilkinson SC, Gharieb MM & Gadd GM (1996) Sequestration, mobilization and transformation of metals and metalloids. In: Frankland JC, Magan N & Gadd GM (Eds) Fungi and Environmental Change (pp 235–256). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Murphy RJ & Levy JF (1983) Production of copper oxalate by some copper tolerant fungi. Transact. Br. Mycol. Soc. 81: 165–168
Narayanappa M & Sohi HS (1985) Seed mycoflora of marigold and its control. Indian J. Mycol. Plant Pathol. 15: 283–286
Raper KB, Fennel D (1977) The Genus Aspergillus. Williams and Wilkens Co., Baltimore.
Roos W & Luckner I (1984) Relationship between proton extrusion and fluxes of ammonium ions and organic acids in Penicillium cyclopium. J. Gen. Microb. 130: 1007–1014
Sayer JA & Gadd GM (1997) Solubiliozation and transformation of insoluble inorganic metal compounds to insoluble metal oxalates by Aspergillus niger. Mycol. Res. 101: 653–661
Slayman CL, Kaminski P & Stetson D (1990) Structure and function of fungal plasma membrane ATPase. In: Kuhn PJ, Trinci AP, Jung MJ, Goosey MW & Copping LG (Eds) Biochemistry of Cell Walls and Membranes in Fungi (pp 299–316). Springer-Verlag KG, Berlin
Sugha SK, Thakur RS & Singh BM (1989) Comparative sensitivity of Rhizoctonia solani isolates to selected systemic fungicides. Indian J. Plant Pathol. 7: 167–172
Sutter HP, Jones GE & Walchli O (1983) The mechanism of copper tolerance in Poria placenta (Fr.) Cke. and Poria vaillantii (Pers.) Fr. Materials and Organisms 18: 241–262
Sutter HP, Jones GE & Walchli O (1984) Occurrence of crystalline hyphal sheaths in Poria placenta (Fr.) Cke. J. Wood Sci. 10: 19–23
Thakare CS & Patil PY (1995) Studies on leaf blight of Chrysanthemum caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. J. Maharashtra Agricultural Universities 20: 49–52
Wainwright M & Grayston SJ (1989) Accumulation and oxidation of metal sulphides by fungi. In Poole RK & Gadd GM (Eds) Metal Microbe Interactions (pp 119–130). IRL Press, Oxford
Warcup JH (1950) The soil plate method for isolation of fungi from soil. Nature (London) 166: 117
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Gharieb, M.I., Ali, M.I. & El-Shoura, A.A. Transformation of Copper Oxychloride Fungicide into Copper Oxalate by Tolerant Fungi and the Effect of Nitrogen Source on Tolerance. Biodegradation 15, 49–57 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1023/B:BIOD.0000009962.48723.df
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:BIOD.0000009962.48723.df